Composition(from Latin compositio - composition, composition),

COMPOSITION. Under the composition of the work in in a broad sense This word should be understood as a set of techniques used by the author to “arrange” his work, techniques that create the overall design of this latter, the order of its individual parts, transitions between them, etc. The essence of compositional techniques is thus reduced to the creation of some complex unity, a complex the whole and their meaning is determined by the role they play against the background of this whole in the subordination of its parts. The composition consists of a beginning, development, climax, denouement, and there can also be an epilogue and a prologue. The techniques and methods are very diverse. Compositional techniques

• center (semantic, compositional)
• application of the golden ratio
• statics
• dynamics

Sometimes comparisons of events, objects, facts, details that are distant from each other in the text of the work turn out to be artistically significant. The most important aspect is also the sequence in which the components of what is depicted are introduced into the text - the temporal organization literary work as a discovery and deployment process artistic content. And finally Composition includes the mutual correlation of different aspects (plans, layers, levels) of the literary form.

Composition units are divided into:

• Formal. For epic– sentence, paragraph, chapter, part, volume. The dilogy suggests that, along with common heroes Each work is read as an independent work, and a book in two volumes does not imply this. For lyrics- verse, stanza. For dramas– scene, act (action). “Frame” text is the title of the work, sometimes with clarifications: epithets, author’s comments, dating, place of writing.
• Speech units. (speech characteristics– this is what the character says, i.e. subjective creation).

1. Dialogue is the most private and democratic characteristic.

2. Monologue (Convert) is evidence of a more developed consciousness.

3. Monologue (unconverted) - internal - this is a deeper characteristic of a person, this is what a person thinks about.

4. Internal dialogue is a characteristic of a sick consciousness that “destroys” a person.

5. Written speech character

6. Character’s diary (Pechorin) – maximum self-disclosure. The diary is not intended for prying eyes.

The text must have a composition, must be built according to a certain plan, which usually has a three-part structure – title, beginning, middle part (development of thoughts) and ending.

• Beginning directly prepares the reader or listener to perceive the main content of the text. It formulates the theme of the story. IN middle part This topic is being developed. Ending sums up the topic.
• Each of the three components of the composition has its own characteristics and is expressed by special language means. There are certain forms of expressing the beginning of a thought, the transition from one thought to another, and the completion of a topic. They are most stable in the beginning and ending.

Heading- This is the introductory phrase of the text. This is the most important element information message or announcement. Its main purpose is to attract the attention of readers and encourage them to read the main text. Creating a title is creativity, the successful result of which necessarily presupposes originality, out-of-the-box thinking. On average five times more people read headlines than body text.

Text structure according to the rule " inverted pyramid", as a rule, the following:

1. The main idea, the most important information, which is necessary to contact the audience.

2. Supporting information. Useful, but not the main thing.

3. Conclusions, conclusion, thanks, whatever. If your readers have reached this part, then the article was really worthwhile.

Paragraph- this is the part of the text between two indents, or red lines. A paragraph differs from a complex syntactic whole in that it is not a unit of the syntactic level. A paragraph is a means of dividing a coherent text based on compositional and stylistic principles. The functions of a paragraph in dialogical and monologue speech are different: in a dialogue, a paragraph serves to delimit remarks different persons, i.e. performs a purely formal role; in monologue speech - to highlight compositionally significant parts of the text (both from the point of view of logical-semantic and emotional-expressive). Paragraph division has one common goal - to highlight significant parts of the text. The main functions of paragraph division are as follows: logical-semantic, expressive-emotional, accentual.

Features of composition and constructive techniques of the text.

Composition– structure, location and relationship components, determined by its content, issues, genre and purpose.

Text composition– this is a way of constructing it, connecting its parts, facts, images.

Very often, the title serves as the key to understanding the entire text, since the title attracts, prepares the perception of the material itself, places emphasis or intrigues.

Most of the texts in compositionally comprises three parts: introduction (beginning), main part and ending.

Introduction(beginning) usually expresses the key idea of ​​the statement. In the text system, this is the most independent, most significant sentence or sentences. The function of introducing a new thought does not allow the beginning to contain substitute words (pronouns or pronominal adverbs) or to represent incomplete sentences. All its members, as a rule, are expressed in lexically complete words. Since the beginning expresses a new thought, it seems to be syntactically open, not closed, it seems to invite you to continue reading and see how the thought that is presented in it in a concentrated form unfolds and reveals itself. The opening groups around itself all other sentences that to some extent depend on it. However, the independence of the beginning is relative: it not only forms the text, subordinating all subsequent sentences, but also depends on them, since they rely on it and develop its thought.

Main part consists of complete sentences connected to each other and to the beginning by a chain or parallel connection. The composition of this part should be thoughtful.

Ending sums up what was said earlier. Often the ending is a summary sentence with a summary word. There may also be introductory words, indicating completeness, completeness, complete exhaustion of thought (finally, so, therefore, thus, in one word). There are other grammatical means of ending endings, for example the conjunction and, which can open the last sentence text or close a series of homogeneous members in it.

Types of text composition:

1) Linear composition - a sequential presentation of facts and events; usually built on a chronological basis (autobiography, report).

2) Step composition - involves an accentuated transition from one position to another (lecture, report).

3) Concentric composition - gives the author the opportunity to move from one position to another with a return to the already given positions (like a spiral), in this case, what is already known to the reader or listener is emphasized, and something new is added to this known, this type of composition contributes to a good assimilation of the text .

4) Parallel - based on a comparison of two or more provisions, facts, events (for example, school essays on the topics “Chatsky and Molchalin”, “Onegin and Lensky”).

5) Discrete – involves skipping individual moments statements of events; this is a rather complex type of composition, characteristic of literary texts (often such a composition is the basis of detective stories).

6) Ring – contains a repetition of the beginning and ending of the text; This type of composition makes it possible to return to what has already been said in the beginning at a new level of understanding the text.

7) Contrasting - based on a sharp contrast between two parts of the text.

It is quite clear that the composition of the text as a whole, its construction is determined by the general concept, the type of text and genre and stylistic features.

The composition is based on one or another constructive techniques– ways in which the logic of relationships between parts of the text is contained. Let us comment on the features of the techniques that are most often found in works and which you yourself could use when writing texts.

1) If parts of the text are opposed to each other, then the technique of contrast is used in the composition. Lermontov’s poem “I will not humiliate myself before you” is based on this technique.

2) The dilemma as a constructive device is also quite often found in texts of different genres. The essence of the technique is to choose between two opposite positions (Hamlet’s famous monologue).

3) The question-and-answer technique (when the author himself asks a question and answers it himself) is necessary to attract the attention of the addressee, caused by the desire to force the reader or listener to first answer the question and then compare it with the author’s answer.

4) The framing technique, when the first and last phrases of a part of the text are the same or almost the same, contributes to greater expressiveness of the text.

5) The enumeration technique is used to strengthen and highlight logical relationships in the text.

6) No less in demand is a technique called concretization; its essence is the use of examples and evidence to confirm ideas.

7) The composition of the text can also be built on the technique of parallelism.

8) In some texts you can observe a technique called paradox, built on a deliberate violation of logic.

Skillful use constructive techniques makes the text more understandable, convincing and memorable.

4.4. Semantic types of texts: description, reasoning and narration.

Legal speech is heterogeneous in its composition. The daily practice of a lawyer (investigation, consultation, evaluation of evidence, etc.) involves a constant search for connections between objects, events, and individual judgments. This is expressed in various functional and semantic types of speech: description, narration, reasoning.

Description- This verbal image phenomena, objects of reality by sequentially listing their signs (properties). The main question that the description is intended to answer is the question “which?” The composition of the description includes: 1) the name of the item, 2) an image of the details, 3) general impression about an object or phenomenon. The description is characterized by staticity, an enumerative structure of homogeneous components, and enumerative intonation. Often speech error in descriptive texts it is considered unjustified to use contrast instead of enumeration.

Narration is a story about events and phenomena conveyed in a certain sequence. Such texts answer the question: “What happened?” and are characterized by dynamism, correlation of aspectual and tense forms of predicate verbs. The composition usually consists of the following components: 1) exposition (the part preceding the plot), 2) the plot (the beginning of the action), 3) the development of the action, 4) the climax (the moment of highest tension), 5) the denouement (the end of the action). This can be seen in expanded epic genres: stories, fairy tales, novels, but if the narrative text is an episode of a full-scale work, then not all components may be represented in its composition. Violation of consistency is considered a serious speech error in narrative texts.

Reasoning– a functional-semantic type of speech in which objects and phenomena are examined, their internal characteristics are revealed, and certain provisions are proven. Reasoning is the basis of persuasive speech and is the verbal justification of some thought or idea. It is demonstrative reasoning - distinguishing feature lawyer's thinking style.

Any reasoning includes three interrelated components: thesis, argument, demonstration.

Thesis is a verbally expressed statement (position), the truth of which is justified in the process of reasoning.

Antithesis– this is a verbally expressed statement (position) opposite to the thesis. From a speech point of view, an argument is a separate and complete, verbally formulated thought, which is assessed by the audience as true, correct and appropriate; it is an argument that serves to substantiate the thesis itself.

Demonstration– a method of logical connection between the thesis and arguments, i.e. the reasoning itself.

Argumentation has its own requirements for each component of the structure of evidential reasoning:

1. The thesis must be formulated clearly and unambiguously.

2. The thesis should not change in the process of this proof or refutation (must be identical).

3.Arguments must be true.

4. Arguments must provide sufficient grounds for the thesis, i.e. The author is obliged to provide arguments that confirm the thesis being defended. The sufficiency of arguments is assessed both in terms of their quantity and their quality.

5.Arguments should not contradict each other and the thesis.

6. The demonstration must represent correct reasoning based on knowledge of the laws of logic: the law of identity, the law of contradiction (non-contradiction), the law of excluded middle, the law of sufficient reason.

Failure to comply with these requirements leads to errors and tricks in the argumentation.

Under logical fallacy usually mean an unintentional violation of the rules of argumentation in the process of reasoning. Errors are possible due to ignorance, logical negligence, ignorance, and lack of qualifications. Trick, on the contrary, is a deliberate violation of the rules of argumentation and is used to mislead the opponent and create the appearance of victory in the dispute.

I. Mistakes/tricks regarding the thesis:

Substitution of the thesis. The essence of the error is as follows: the thesis that was first put forward is not proven or refuted.

II. Mistakes/tricks regarding arguments:

A) “Basic fallacy” (“falsity of the basis”) – the use as arguments of obviously false judgments that are presented or attempted to be presented as true.

B) “Anticipation of the basis” - the inclusion in speech of arguments that are not obviously false, but themselves require evidence.

C) “Vicious circle” (“cyclical argument”) – the thesis is substantiated by arguments that represent a paraphrased thesis.

III. Mistakes/tricks regarding the demo.

A) “Imaginary following” (“does not follow”) – only the appearance of a logical connection is created between the thesis and arguments.

B) “From what is said with a condition to what is said unconditionally.” An argument that is true under certain conditions is used as unconditionally true (i.e. always).

B) “Hasty generalization.” An error occurs when the arguments presented are not enough to establish the truth of the stated thesis.

Studying mistakes and tricks is necessary for a lawyer in order to recognize them in the speech of his opponent and be able to resist them.

In the theory of argumentation, it is customary to distinguish arguments according to various criteria:

1. From a point of view morals and ethics(moral criterion), arguments can be divided into correct (acceptable) and incorrect (inadmissible).

2. Based on relevance criterion(acceptability), it is customary to distinguish two types of arguments: rational arguments (ad res - argument to the merits of the matter) and irrational arguments (ad hominem - argument to the person).

Rational Arguments– arguments based on reason and logic. Irrational Arguments– these are arguments that appeal to the interests and feelings of the audience.

3. By force of influence in argumentative rhetoric, the following types of arguments are distinguished: 1) comprehensive(he is always alone); 2) main(there may be several); 3) controversial(arguments that can be considered from the positions of “for” and “against”); 4) spare.

The sources of rational arguments are statements of fact; statistical data; authorities; theoretical and empirical generalizations; previously proven provisions, axioms, postulates; laws, scientific definitions.

Facts or actual data- these are single events or phenomena that are characterized by certain time, place and specific conditions of their occurrence and existence.

Statistical data– quantitative indicators of the development of production and society. Statistics help flesh out the message and make it more accurate.

For example, for believers, turning to the text of the Bible is an argument to the essence of the matter; for lawyers in their practice, undoubtedly, the Constitution of the Russian Federation is an authoritative source.

TO theoretical generalizations refer to all legal laws and regulations involved in the consideration of the facts of the case and do not require evidence. Empirical generalizations otherwise called arguments from experience. Summarize the data obtained experimentally (measured, weighed). Empirical arguments are often absolute proof in investigative and judicial practice.

Preliminarily verified and procedurally evaluated witness testimony can be considered as previously proven arguments. The arguments are axioms, i.e. obvious and therefore unprovable propositions in this area, for example: “a part is greater than the whole.” In addition, arguments can be definitions of basic concepts in a particular field of knowledge. In judicial practice, when considering a specific criminal case, the content of such concepts as “crime”, “intention”, “guilt”, “aggravating circumstances” and many others is not discussed or established. References to such definitions mean using them as arguments in legal reasoning.

Among irrational arguments it is customary to highlight general and private.

Common arguments include to tradition, argument to authority, argument to intuition, argument to faith, argument to common sense, argument to taste (to fashion).

Tradition is a system of patterns, norms and rules that guide the behavior of a fairly large and stable group of people. IN modern society traditions are effective, for example, in the army, church, and some political parties.

An argument to authority is a reference to the opinion or action of a person who has proven himself in a given area through his judgments or actions. It should be remembered that appealing to certain authorities should be determined by the specifics of the audience to whom the speaker is speaking.

Intuition is usually defined as the direct perception of the truth, its comprehension without any reasoning or proof. IN pure form intuitive argumentation is rare and is unlikely to be applicable in legal practice. Faith is close to intuition - a deep, sincere, emotionally rich conviction in the justice of some position or concept. Like all irrational arguments, it needs a certain audience to be sympathetic to it.

In argumentation when discussing problems relating to human life and activity, special role common sense plays a role. First of all, common sense manifests itself in judgments about right and wrong, good and bad. Already have ideas common sense concept of taste.

Argumentation to taste (or to fashion) is an appeal to the sense of taste that the audience has and can persuade it to accept the position put forward. The taste is imprinted social life and changes with it.

Particular irrational arguments can be addressed both to the procedural opponent and to the entire audience present. Let us briefly describe the main types of arguments.

An argument to a person is an indication of the dignity of a person in order to arouse sympathy and trust in him and thereby avert suspicion of committing negative actions and neutralize a bad opinion.

An argument to a person whose purpose is to cause rejection in the audience certain point vision, contains characteristics negative aspects personality and thereby undermines the trust of listeners in his words.

An argument to the public is an appeal to the feelings, moods, and prejudices of listeners in order to persuade them to make the desired decision for the speaker.

An argument for pity is an argument designed to evoke pity for the person being discussed, the accused. It is often used in the speeches of trial lawyers.

The argument for physical well-being is designed for a person’s natural desire to live the way he wants, comfortably and conveniently, to be physically well-off. In addition to the argument for physical well-being, arguments that affect the material, social and economic interests of the audience are quite effective; self-esteem (argument to vanity).

Arguments of justice and right involve appeals to generosity, compassion for the weak, a sense of duty, and other noble motives.

In the process of argumentation, arguments are arranged according to certain argumentative schemes. At the same time, the specifics of the audience are taken into account.

So, top-down argumentation, in which the strongest argument is presented first, and then weaker ones, is effective in an unprepared, not very interested audience or in an emotional situation.

Rising Argumentation(from weaker to stronger arguments) turns out to be effective in a calm atmosphere when discussing serious issues, when the interlocutors are ready to listen and analyze.

One-sided argument(only arguments “for” or only arguments “against” are presented) has a better impact on poorly educated people and is effective in finally convincing someone who is still hesitant in making a decision. Two-sided argumentation(using arguments “for” and “against” followed by a conclusion) is applicable in a prepared or negative audience.

The optimal number of arguments when proving a thesis is considered to be “three”: one argument is simply a fact; You can object to two arguments, but it’s more difficult to do so with three arguments. The third argument has a decisive impact: starting from the fourth argument, the audience no longer perceives the argument as a system, but as many arguments. At the same time, the impression arises that the speaker is trying to put pressure on the audience, “persuading.” Eat old saying: He who proves a lot proves nothing. "Many" starts with the fourth argument.

It is important that the speaker is able to identify these priorities and take them into account in his speech.

Composition is the structure, arrangement and relationship of the constituent parts of the text, determined by its content, issues, genre and purpose.

The composition of a text is a way of constructing it, connecting its parts, facts, and images.

The famous Roman scientist Marcus Fabius Quintilian is credited with developing the theory of speech composition. Quintilian identified eight parts in the speaker's speech. The composition of the speech he developed became part of the practice of later rhetoric.

So, eight parts of the composition according to Quintilian.

1. Appeal. Its purpose is to attract the attention of the audience and endear it to the speaker.

2. Naming the topic. The speaker names what he will talk about, primes the audience for the subject, forces them to remember what they know, and prepares them to delve into the subject.

3. Narration consists of a description of the history of the subject (how the question that needs to be resolved arose, and how the matter itself developed).

4. Description. A story about what things are like at the moment.

5. Proof consists of logical arguments justifying the solution to a problem.

6. Refutation. Proof by contradiction. A different point of view on the subject is allowed, which the speaker refutes.

7. Appeal. Appeal to the feelings of listeners. The goal is to evoke an emotional response from the audience. It ranks second to last in speech structure because people are generally more likely to make judgments based on emotion rather than logic.

8. Conclusion. Summary everything that has been said and conclusions on the case under discussion.

• linear composition is a sequential presentation of facts and events and is usually built on a chronological basis (autobiography, report);

• stepped - involves an accentuated transition from one position to another (lecture, report),

• parallel - is based on a comparison of two or more provisions, facts, events (for example, school essays, whose topics are

“Chatsky and Molchalin”, “Onegin and Lensky”, “Larina’s Sisters”

• discrete - involves the omission of certain moments in the presentation of events. This complex type of organization is characteristic of literary texts. (For example, such a decision is often at the heart of detective stories);

• ring composition – contains a repetition of the beginning and ending of the text. This type of structure makes it possible to return to what has already been said in the beginning at a new level of understanding the text.

So, for example, the incomplete repetition of the beginning in A. Blok’s poem “Night, street, lantern, pharmacy” makes it possible to comprehend what the poet said as a vital contradiction to the words “And everything will repeat as before” at the end of the text.);

• contrasting - based on a sharp contrast between two parts of the text.

Genre types of composition

Depending on the genre of the text, it can be:

• tough- mandatory for all texts of the genre (certificates, information notes, statements, memos);
• variable- the approximate order of arrangement of parts of the text is known, but the author has the opportunity to vary it (textbook, answer in class, letter);
• non-rigid— presupposing sufficient freedom for the author, despite the fact that he is guided by existing examples of the genre (story, essay, essay);

In the texts:

• built on the basis of combining elements, a linear, stepped, parallel, concentric composition is used,
• in literary texts its organization is often more complex - it builds time and space in its own way work of art.

Our short presentation on this topic

Materials are published with the personal permission of the author - Ph.D. O.A. Mazneva (see “Our Library”)

Composition is the arrangement of parts of a literary work in a certain order, a set of forms and methods artistic expression by the author depending on his intention. Translated from Latin language means “composition”, “construction”. Composition builds all parts of the work into a single, complete whole.

It helps the reader to better understand the content of the works, maintains interest in the book and helps to draw the necessary conclusions in the end. Sometimes the composition of a book intrigues the reader and he looks for a sequel to the book or other works by this writer.

Composition elements

Among such elements are narration, description, dialogue, monologue, inserted stories and lyrical digressions:

1. Narration - main element compositions, the author's story, revealing the content of the work of art. Occupies most the volume of the entire work. Conveys the dynamics of events; it can be retold or illustrated with drawings.
2. Description. This is a static element. During the description, events do not occur; it serves as a picture, a background for the events of the work. The description is a portrait, an interior, a landscape. A landscape is not necessarily an image of nature; it can be a city landscape, a lunar landscape, a description of fantasy cities, planets, galaxies, or a description of fictional worlds.
3. Dialogue- conversation between two people. It helps to reveal the plot, deepen the characters characters. Through the dialogue between two heroes, the reader learns about the events of the past of the heroes of the works, about their plans, and begins to better understand the characters’ characters.
4. Monologue- speech of one character. In comedy A. S. Griboedova Through Chatsky’s monologues, the author conveys the thoughts of the leading people of his generation and the experiences of the hero himself, who learned about his beloved’s betrayal.
5. Image system. All images of a work that interact in connection with the author’s intention. These are images of people fairy tale characters, mythical, toponymic and subject. There are awkward images invented by the author, for example, “The Nose” from Gogol’s story of the same name. The authors simply invented many images, and their names became commonly used.
6. Insert stories, a story within a story. Many authors use this technique to create intrigue in a work or at the denouement. A work may contain several inserted stories, the events in which take place in different time. U Bulgakov in “The Master and Margarita” the device of a novel within a novel is used.
7. Author's or lyrical digressions. A lot of lyrical digressions Gogol's work "Dead Souls". Because of them, the genre of the work has changed. It's big prose work called the poem “Dead Souls”. And “Eugene Onegin” is called a novel in verse because large quantity author's digressions, thanks to which readers are presented impressive picture Russian life early 19th century.
8. Author's description . In it, the author talks about the character of the hero and does not hide his positive or negative attitude towards him. Gogol in his works he often gives ironic characteristics to his heroes - so precise and succinct that his heroes often become household names.
9. Plot of the story- this is a chain of events occurring in a work. The plot is the content literary text.
10. Fable- all events, circumstances and actions that are described in the text. The main difference from the plot is the chronological sequence.
11. Scenery- description of nature, real and imaginary world, city, planet, galaxies, existing and fictional. The landscape is artistic device, thanks to which the character of the characters is revealed more deeply and an assessment of events is given. You can remember how it changes seascape V Pushkinskaya“The Tale of the Fisherman and the Fish,” when the old man comes to the Goldfish again and again with another request.
12. Portrait- this description is not only appearance hero, but also him inner world. Thanks to the author’s talent, the portrait is so accurate that all readers have the same idea of ​​the appearance of the hero of the book they read: what Natasha Rostova, Prince Andrei, Sherlock Holmes looks like. Sometimes the author draws the reader's attention to some characteristic feature hero, for example, Poirot’s mustache in Agatha Christie’s books.

Don't miss: in the literature, examples of use.

Compositional techniques

Subject composition

The development of the plot has its own stages of development. There is always a conflict at the center of the plot, but the reader does not immediately learn about it.

Subject composition depends on the genre of the work. For example, fable necessarily ends with a moral. Dramatic works of classicism had their own laws of composition, for example, they had to have five acts.

The composition of the works is distinguished by its unshakable features folklore. Songs, fairy tales, and epics were created according to their own laws of construction.

The composition of the fairy tale begins with the saying: “Like on the sea-ocean, and on the island of Buyan...”. The saying was often composed in poetic form and was sometimes far from the content of the fairy tale. The storyteller attracted the attention of the listeners with a saying and waited for them to listen to him without being distracted. Then he said: “This is a saying, not a fairy tale. There will be a fairy tale ahead."

Then came the beginning. The most famous of them begins with the words: “Once upon a time” or “In a certain kingdom, in the thirtieth state...”. Then the storyteller moved on to the fairy tale itself, to its heroes, to wonderful events.

Techniques of a fairy-tale composition, a threefold repetition of events: the hero fights three times with the Serpent Gorynych, three times the princess sits at the window of the tower, and Ivanushka on a horse flies to her and tears off the ring, three times the Tsar tests his daughter-in-law in the fairy tale “The Frog Princess”.

The ending of the fairy tale is also traditional; about the heroes of the fairy tale they say: “They live, live well and make good things.” Sometimes the ending hints at a treat: “A fairy tale for you, but a bagel for me.”

Literary composition- this is the arrangement of parts of a work in a certain sequence, this is an integral system of forms artistic image. The means and techniques of composition deepen the meaning of what is depicted and reveal the characteristics of the characters. Each work of art has its own unique composition, but there are its traditional laws that are observed in some genres.

During classicism, there was a system of rules that prescribed to authors certain rules writing texts, and they could not be violated. This is the rule of three unities: time, place, plot. This is a five act structure. dramatic works. This speaking names and a clear division into negative and goodies. The compositional features of classicism are a thing of the past.

Compositional techniques in literature depend on the genre of the work of art and on the talent of the author, who has available types, elements, techniques of composition, knows its features and knows how to use these artistic methods.