Introduction……………………………………………………………..2

Architecture……………………………………………………….3

Painting………………………………………………………………………………..5

Education……………………………………………………10

Science…………………………………………………………………………………13

Conclusion………………………………………………………..17

References…………………………………………………………………….18

Introduction

The Silver Age of Russian culture turned out to be surprisingly short. It lasted less than a quarter of a century: 1900 - 1922. The starting date coincides with the year of death of the Russian religious philosopher and poet V.S. Solovyov, and the final one - with the year of deportation from already Soviet Russia large group philosophers and thinkers. The brevity of the period does not at all detract from its significance. On the contrary, over time this importance even increases. It lies in the fact that Russian culture - even if not all of it, but only part of it - was the first to realize the harmfulness of development, the value guidelines of which are one-sided rationalism, irreligion and lack of spirituality. Western world I came to this realization much later.

The Silver Age includes, first of all, two main spiritual phenomena: the Russian religious revival of the early 20th century, also known as “God-seeking,” and Russian modernism, embracing symbolism and acmeism. Poets such as M. Tsvetaeva, S. Yesenin and B. Pasternak, who were not part of the named movements, belong to it. The Silver Age should also include artistic association"The World of Art" (1898 - 1924).

Architecture of the "Silver Age"

The era of industrial progress at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. made a real revolution in construction. New types of buildings, such as banks, shops, factories, and train stations, occupied an increasing place in the urban landscape. The emergence of new building materials (reinforced concrete, metal structures) and the improvement of construction equipment made it possible to use constructive and artistic techniques, the aesthetic understanding of which led to the establishment of the Art Nouveau style!

In the works of F.O. Shekhtel embodied to the greatest extent the main development trends and genres of Russian modernism. The formation of style in the master’s work proceeded in two directions – national-romantic, in line with the neo-Russian style, and rational. The features of Art Nouveau are most fully manifested in the architecture of the Nikitsky Gate mansion, where, abandoning traditional schemes, the asymmetrical principle of planning was applied. The stepped composition, the free development of volumes in space, the asymmetrical projections of bay windows, balconies and porches, the emphatically protruding cornice - all this demonstrates the principle inherent in modernism of likening an architectural structure to an organic form.

The decorative decoration of the mansion uses such typical Art Nouveau techniques as colored stained glass windows and a mosaic frieze with floral patterns that encircles the entire building. The whimsical twists of the ornament are repeated in the interlacing of stained glass windows, in the design of balcony bars and street fencing. The same motif is used in interior decoration, for example, in the form of marble staircase railings. The furniture and decorative details of the building’s interiors form a single whole with the overall design of the building - to transform the domestic environment into a kind of architectural spectacle, close to the atmosphere symbolic plays.

With the growth of rationalistic tendencies, features of constructivism emerged in a number of Shekhtel’s buildings, a style that would take shape in the 1920s.

In Moscow, the new style expressed itself especially clearly, in particular in the work of one of the creators of Russian modernism, L.N. Kekusheva A.V. worked in the neo-Russian style. Shchusev, V.M. Vasnetsov and others. In St. Petersburg, modernism was influenced by monumental classicism, as a result of which another style appeared - neoclassicism.
In terms of the integrity of the approach and the ensemble solution of architecture, sculpture, painting, and decorative arts, Art Nouveau is one of the most consistent styles.

Painting of the "Silver Age"

The trends that determined the development of literature of the “Silver Age” were also characteristic of visual arts, which constituted an entire era in Russian and world culture. At the turn of the century, the work of one of the greatest masters of Russian painting, Mikhail Vrubel, flourished. Vrubel's images are symbolic images. They do not fit into the framework of old ideas. The artist is “a giant who thinks not in everyday categories of the surrounding life, but in “eternal” concepts, he rushes about in search of truth and beauty.” Vrubel's dream of beauty, which was so difficult to find in the world around him, which is full of hopeless contradictions. Vrubel's fantasy takes us to other worlds, where beauty, however, is not freed from the diseases of the century - these are the feelings of people of that time embodied in colors and lines, when Russian society longed for renewal and was looking for ways to it.

In Vrubel’s work, fantasy combined with reality. The subjects of some of his paintings and panels are frankly fantastic. Depicting the Demon or the fairy-tale Swan Princess, Princess Dreaming or Pan, he paints his heroes in a world as if created by the mighty power of myth. But even when the subject of the image turned out to be reality, Vrubel seemed to endow nature with the ability to feel and think, and immeasurably strengthened human feelings several times over. The artist wanted the colors on his canvases to shine inner light, shone like precious stones.

Another important painter of the turn of the century is Valentin Serov. The origins of his work are in the 80s of the 19th century. He acted as a continuer of the best traditions of the Wanderers and at the same time a bold discoverer of new paths in art. A wonderful artist, he was a brilliant teacher. Many prominent artists of the nine hundred years of the new century owe their skills to him.
In the first years of his work, the artist sees the highest goal of the artist in the embodiment of the poetic principle. Serov learned to see the big and the significant in the small. His wonderful portraits “Girl with Peaches” and “Girl Illuminated by the Sun” contain not so much specific images as symbols of youth, beauty, happiness, and love.

Later, Serov sought to express ideas about human beauty in portraits creative personalities, affirming an idea important for Russian artistic culture: a person is beautiful when he is a creator and an artist (portraits of K. A. Korovin, I. I. Levitan). V. Serov’s courage in characterizing his models is striking, be it the leading intelligentsia or bankers, high society ladies, high officials and members of the royal family.

The portraits of V. Serov, created in the first decade of the new century, testify to the merging of the best traditions of Russian painting and the creation of new aesthetic principles. Such are the portraits of M. A. Vrubel, T. N. Karsavina, and later the “exquisitely stylized” portrait of V. O. Girshman and the beautiful portrait of Ida Rubinstein, in the spirit of Art Nouveau.

At the turn of the century, the creativity of artists who became the pride of Russia developed: K. A. Korovin, A. P. Ryabushkin, M. V. Nesterov. Magnificent canvases on subjects of ancient Rus' belong to N.K. Roerich, who sincerely dreamed of new role art and hoped that “from an enslaved servant, art can again turn into the first mover of life.”

Russian sculpture of this period is also distinguished by its richness. The best traditions of realistic sculpture of the second half of the 19th century were embodied in his works (and among them the monument to the pioneer printer Ivan Fedorov) by S. M. Volnukhin. The impressionist direction in sculpture was expressed by P. Trubetskoy. The work of A. S. Golubkina and S. T. Konenkov is distinguished by humanistic pathos and sometimes deep drama.

But all these processes could not unfold outside the social context. Themes - Russia and freedom, intelligentsia and revolution - permeated both the theory and practice of Russian artistic culture of this period. Art culture late XIX- the beginning of the 20th century is characterized by many platforms and directions. Two life symbols, two historical concepts - “yesterday” and “tomorrow” - clearly dominated the concept of “today” and determined the boundaries within which the confrontation took place different ideas and concepts.

The general psychological atmosphere of the post-revolutionary years caused some artists to distrust life. Attention to form is increasing, and a new aesthetic ideal of contemporary modernist art is being realized. Schools of the Russian avant-garde, which have become famous throughout the world, are developing, based on the work of V. E. Tatlin, K. S. Malevich, V. V. Kandinsky.

Artists participating in the 1907 exhibition under the bright symbolic title “ Blue Rose”, were intensively promoted by the magazine “Golden Fleece” (N. P. Krymov, P. V. Kuznetsov, M. S. Saryan, S. Yu. Sudeikin, N. N. Sapunov, etc.). They were different in their creative aspirations, but they were united by a desire for expressiveness, for the creation of a new artistic form, for updating the pictorial language. In extreme manifestations, this resulted in the cult of “pure art”, in images generated by the subconscious.

The emergence in 1911 and the subsequent activities of the artists of the “Jack of Diamonds” reveals the connection of Russian painters with the destinies of pan-European artistic movements. In the works of P. P. Konchalovsky, I. I. Mashkov and other “Jack of Diamonds” artists with their formal quests, the desire to build form with the help of color, and composition and space on certain rhythms, the principles that were formed in Western Europe are expressed. At this time, Cubism in France reached the “synthetic” stage, moving from simplification, schematization and decomposition of form to a complete separation from representation. Russian artists, who were attracted by an analytical approach to the subject in early Cubism, found this tendency alien. If Konchalovsky and Mashkov show a clear evolution towards a realistic worldview, then the tendency of the artistic process of other artists of the “Jack of Diamonds” had a different meaning. In 1912, young artists, having separated from the “Jack of Diamonds”, called their group “Donkey’s Tail”. The provocative name emphasizes the rebellious nature of the performances, which are directed against the established norms of artistic creativity. Russian artists: N. Goncharov, K. Malevich, M. Chagall - continue their search, do it energetically and purposefully. Later their paths diverged.
Larionov, who abandoned the depiction of reality, came to the so-called Rayonism. Malevich, Tatlin, Kandinsky took the path of abstractionism.

The searches of the artists of “The Blue Rose” and “Jack of Diamonds” do not exhaust the new trends in the art of the first decades of the 20th century. A special place in this art belongs to K. S. Petrov-Vodkin. His art flourished in the post-October period, but already in the nine hundred years he declared his creative originality with the beautiful canvases “Boys at Play” and “Bathing the Red Horse.”

Education of the "Silver Age"

The education system in Russia at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. still included three levels: primary (parochial schools, public schools), secondary (classical gymnasiums, real and commercial schools) and higher school (universities, institutes). According to 1813 data, literate people among the subjects of the Russian Empire (with the exception of children under 8 years old) averaged 38-39%.

To a large extent, the development of public education was associated with the activities of the democratic public. The authorities' policy in this area does not seem consistent. Thus, in 1905, the Ministry of Public Education submitted a draft law “On the introduction of universal primary education in the Russian Empire” for consideration by the Second State Duma, but this project never received the force of law.

The growing need for specialists contributed to the development of higher, especially technical, education. In 1912, there were 16 higher technical educational institutions in Russia. Only one was added to the previous number of universities, Saratov (1909), but the number of students increased noticeably - from 14 thousand in mid. 90s to 35.3 thousand in 1907. Private higher educational institutions became widespread (P.F. Lesgaft Free Higher School, V.M. Bekhterev Psychoneurological Institute, etc.). Shanyavsky University, which operated in 1908-18. at the expense of the liberal public education activist A.L. Shanyavsky (1837-1905) and who provided secondary and higher education, played an important role in the democratization of higher education. The university accepted persons of both sexes, regardless of nationality and political views.

Further development at the beginning of the 20th century. received higher education for women.

At the beginning of the 20th century. in Russia there were already about 30 higher educational institutions for women (Women's Pedagogical Institute in St. Petersburg, 1903; Higher women's agricultural courses in Moscow under the leadership of D.N. Pryanishnikov, 1908, etc.). Finally, women's right to higher education was legally recognized (1911).

At the same time with Sunday schools New types of cultural and educational institutions for adults began to operate - workers' courses (for example, Prechistensky in Moscow, among the teachers of which were such outstanding scientists as physiologist I.M. Sechenov, historian V.I. Picheta, etc.), educational workers' societies and people's houses - original clubs with a library, assembly hall, tea and trading shop (Lithuanian People's House of Countess S.V. Panina in St. Petersburg).

The development had a great influence on education periodicals and book publishing. At the beginning of the 20th century. 125 legal newspapers were published, in 1913 - more than 1000. 1263 magazines were published. The circulation of the mass literary, artistic and popular science “thin” magazine “Niva” (1894-1916) by 1900 grew from 9 to 235 thousand copies. In terms of the number of books published, Russia ranked third in the world (after Germany and Japan). In 1913, 106.8 million copies of books were published in Russian alone. The largest book publishers A.S. Suvorin (1835-1912) in St. Petersburg and I.D. Sytin (1851-1934) in Moscow contributed to introducing people to literature by publishing books at affordable prices (“Cheap Library” by Suvorin, “Library for Self-Education” by Sytin). In 1989-1913. In St. Petersburg, the book publishing partnership “Knowledge” operated, which was headed by M. Gorky from 1902. Since 1904, 40 “Collections of the Knowledge Partnership” have been published, including works by outstanding realist writers M. Gorky, A.I. Kuprina, I.A. Bunin, etc.

The process of enlightenment was intensive and successful, the number of the reading public gradually increased. This is evidenced by the fact that in 1914. in Russia there were about 76 thousand different public libraries. An equally important role in the development of culture was played by “illusion” - cinema,

appeared in St. Petersburg literally a year after its invention in France. By 1914 in Russia there were already 4,000 cinemas, which showed not only foreign, but also domestic paintings. The need for them was so great that between 1908 and 1917 more than two thousand new feature films were produced.

The beginning of professional cinema in Russia was laid by the film “Stenka Razin and the Princess” (1908, directed by V.F. Romashkov). In 1911-1913 V.A. Starevich created the world's first three-dimensional animations. Films directed by B.F. became widely known. Bauer, V.R. Gardina, Protazanova and others.

Science of the "Silver Age"

At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. New fields of science, including aeronautics, were developed. NOT. Zhukovsky (1847-1921) - the founder of modern hydro- and aerodynamics. He created the theory of water hammer, discovered the law that determines the magnitude of the lifting force of an aircraft wing, developed the vortex theory of a propeller, etc. The great Russian scientist was a professor at Moscow University and the Higher Technical School.

K.E. Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935) developed theoretical basis aeronautics, aerodynamics and rocket dynamics. He has carried out extensive research on the theory and design of an all-metal airship. In 1897, having built a simple wind tunnel, together with Zhukovsky he conducted research in it on models of airships and airplane wings. In 1898 Tsiolkovsky invented the autopilot. Finally, the scientist, justifying the possibility of interplanetary flights, proposed a liquid-propellant jet engine - a rocket ("Exploration of world spaces with jet instruments", 1903).

The works of the outstanding Russian physicist P.N. Lebedev (1866-1912) played a major role in the development of the theory of relativity, quantum theory and astrophysics. The scientist's main achievement is the discovery and measurement of the pressure of light on solids and gases. Lebedev is also the founder of ultrasound research.

The scientific significance of the works of the great Russian scientist physiologist I.P. Pavlova (1849-1934) is so great that the history of physiology is divided into two large stages: pre-Pavlovian and Pavlovian. The scientist developed and introduced fundamentally new research methods into scientific practice (the method of “chronic” experience). Pavlov's most significant research relates to the physiology of blood circulation, and for research in the field of physiology of digestion, Pavlov, the first among Russian scientists, was awarded the Nobel Prize (1904). Decades of subsequent work in these areas led to the creation of the doctrine of higher nervous activity. Another Russian naturalist, I. I. Mechnikov (1845-1916), soon became a Nobel laureate (1908) for research in the field of comparative pathology, microbiology and immunology. The foundations of new sciences (biochemistry, biogeochemistry, radiogeology) were laid by V.I. Vernadsky (1863-1945). The significance of scientific foresight and a number of fundamental scientific problems posed by scientists at the beginning of the century is becoming clear only now.

The humanities were greatly influenced by the processes taking place in natural science. Idealism has become widespread in philosophy.

Russian religious philosophy, with its search for ways to combine the material and spiritual, the establishment of a “new” religious consciousness, was perhaps the most important area not only of science, ideological struggle, but also of all culture.

The foundations of the religious and philosophical Renaissance, which marked the “Silver Age” of Russian culture, were laid by V.S. Solovyov (1853-1900). The son of a famous historian, who grew up in the “severe and pious atmosphere” that reigned in the family (his grandfather was a Moscow priest), in his high school years (from 14 to 18 years old) he experienced, in his words, a time of “theoretical negation”, a passion for materialism , and moved from childhood religiosity to atheism. During his student years - first, for three years, at the natural sciences, then at the historical and philological faculties of Moscow University (1889-73) and, finally, at the Moscow Theological Academy (1873-74) - Solovyov, doing a lot of philosophy, as well as studying religious and philosophical literature, experienced a spiritual turning point. It was at this time that the foundations of his future system began to take shape. Solovyov’s teaching was nourished from several roots: the search for social

truth; theological rationalism and the desire for a new form of Christian consciousness; an unusually acute sense of history - not cosmocentrism or anthropocentrism, but historical centrism; the idea of ​​Sophia, and, finally, the idea of ​​God-manhood is the key point of his constructions. It “is the most full-voiced chord that has ever been heard in the history of philosophy” (S.N. Bulgakov). His system is an experience of synthesis of religion, philosophy and science. “Moreover, it is not Christian doctrine that is enriched by him at the expense of philosophy, but on the contrary, he introduces Christian ideas into philosophy and with them enriches and fertilizes philosophical thought” (V.V. Zenkovsky). The significance of Solovyov is extremely great in the history of Russian philosophy. Possessing brilliant literary talent, he made philosophical problems accessible to wide circles of Russian society, moreover, he brought Russian thought to universal human expanses (“Philosophical principles of integral knowledge”, 1877; “Russian idea” in French, 1888, in Russian - 1909; “Justification of Good”, 1897 ; “The Tale of the Antichrist”, 1900, etc.).

The Russian religious and philosophical Renaissance, marked by a whole constellation of brilliant thinkers - N.A. Berdyaev (1874-1948), S.N. Bulgakov (1871-1944), D.S. Merezhkovsky (1865-1940), S.N. Trubetskoy (1862-1905) and E.N. Trubetskoy (1863-1920), G.P. Fedotov (1886-1951), P.A. Florensky (1882-1937), S.L. Frank (1877-1950) and others largely determined the direction of development of culture, philosophy, and ethics not only in Russia, but also in the West, anticipating, in particular, existentialism. Humanities scholars worked fruitfully in the field of economics, history, and literary criticism (V.O. Klyuchevsky, S.F. Platonov, V.I. Semevsky, S.A. Vengerov, A.N. Pypin, etc.). At the same time, an attempt was made to consider the problems of philosophy, sociology, history from a Marxist position (G.V. Plekhanov, V.I. Lenin, M.N. Pokrovsky, etc.).

Conclusion

The Silver Age had great importance for the development of not only Russian, but also world culture. For the first time, its leaders expressed serious concern that the emerging relationship between civilization and culture was becoming dangerous, and that the preservation and revival of spirituality was an urgent need.

In Russia at the beginning of the century there was a real cultural renaissance. Only those who lived at that time know what a creative upsurge we experienced. What a breath of spirit has gripped Russian souls. Russia experienced a heyday of poetry and philosophy, experienced intense religious quests, mystical and occult sentiments. At the beginning of the century, a difficult, often painful, struggle was waged by the people of the Renaissance against the narrowed consciousness of the traditional intelligentsia - a struggle in the name of freedom of creativity and in the name of the spirit. It was about the liberation of spiritual culture from the oppression of social utilitarianism. At the same time, this was a return to the creative heights of spiritual culture of the 19th century.

In addition, finally, after many decades and even centuries of lagging behind in the field of painting, Russia, on the eve of the October Revolution, caught up with, and in some areas surpassed, Europe. For the first time, it was Russia that began to determine world fashion not only in painting, but also in literature and music.

Bibliography

1. M.G. Barkhin. Architecture and the city. - M.: Science, 1979

2. Borisova E.A., Sternin G.Yu., Russian modernity, “ Soviet artist", M., 1990.

3. Kravchenko A.I. Culturology: Tutorial for universities. - 8th ed.-M.: Academic project; Trixta, 2008.

4. Neklyudinova M.G. Traditions and innovation in Russian art of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. M., 1991.

5. History of Russian and Soviet art, “Higher School”, M., 1989.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

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"STATE UNIVERSITY OF MANAGEMENT"

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ABSTRACT ON NATIONAL HISTORY

Architecture, painting, science and education of the “Silver Age”.

Performed:

2nd year student, 1st group

Pavlova D.A.

Checked:

Tretyakova L.I.

Description of the presentation by individual slides:

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Slide description:

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Slide description:

The new stage in the development of Russian culture is conventionally called the “Silver Age”, starting from the reform of 1861 to the October Revolution of 1917. This name was first proposed by the philosopher N. Berdyaev, who saw in the highest cultural achievements of his contemporaries a reflection of the Russian glory of the previous “golden” eras; this phrase finally entered literary circulation in the 60s of the last century. The "Silver Age" occupies a very special place in Russian culture. This controversial time of spiritual search and wandering significantly enriched all types of arts and philosophy and gave birth to a whole galaxy of outstanding creative personalities. On the threshold of a new century, the deep foundations of life began to change, giving rise to collapse old painting peace. Traditional regulators of existence - religion, morality, law - did not cope with their functions, and the age of modernity was born.

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In 1897, the All-Russian population census was carried out. According to the census, in Russia the average literacy rate was 21.1%: men - 29.3%, women - 13.1%, about 1% of the population had higher and secondary education. IN high school, in relation to the entire literate population, only 4% studied. At the turn of the century, the education system still included three levels: primary (parochial schools, public schools), secondary (classical gymnasiums, real and commercial schools) and higher school (universities, institutes).

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In 1905, the Ministry of Public Education submitted a draft law “On the introduction of universal primary education in the Russian Empire” for consideration by the Second State Duma, but this project never received the force of law. But the growing need for specialists contributed to the development of higher, especially technical, education. In 1912, there were 16 higher technical educational institutions in Russia, in addition to private higher educational institutions. The university accepted persons of both sexes, regardless of nationality and political views. Therefore, the number of students increased noticeably - from 14 thousand in the mid-90s to 35.3 thousand in 1907. Higher education for women received further development, and in 1911 women’s right to higher education was legally recognized.

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Simultaneously with Sunday schools, new types of cultural and educational institutions for adults began to operate - workers' courses, educational workers' societies and people's houses - original clubs with a library, assembly hall, teahouse and trading shop.

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An example of a newspaper in the Silver Age The development of periodicals and book publishing had a great influence on education. In the 1860s, 7 daily newspapers were published and about 300 printing houses operated. In the 1890s there were 100 newspapers and approximately 1000 printing houses. And in 1913, 1263 newspapers and magazines were already published, and there were approximately 2 thousand bookstores in the cities.

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In terms of the number of books published, Russia ranked third in the world after Germany and Japan. In 1913, 106.8 million copies of books were published in Russian alone. The largest book publishers are A.S. Suvorin in St. Petersburg and I.D. Sytin in Moscow contributed to introducing people to literature by publishing books at affordable prices: Suvorin’s “cheap library” and Sytin’s “library for self-education.”

Knowledge Hypermarket >>History >>History 9th grade >>History: Silver Age of Russian culture

Silver Age of Russian Culture

1. The spiritual state of society.

2. Science.

3. In search of a social ideal.

4. Literature.

5. Painting.

6. Sculpture.

7. Architecture.

8. Music, ballet, theater, cinema.

The spiritual state of society.

Beginning of the 20th century - a turning point not only in political and socio-economic life Russia, but also in the spiritual state of society. The industrial era dictated its own conditions and standards of life, destroying traditional values ​​and ideas of people. The aggressive onslaught of production led to a violation of the harmony between nature and man, to the smoothing of human individuality, to the triumph of standardization of all aspects of life. This gave rise to confusion, an anxious feeling of impending disaster. All the ideas about good and evil, truth and lies, beautiful and ugly, hard-won by previous generations, now seemed untenable and required urgent and radical revision.

The science.

Russia at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries. made a significant contribution to the world scientific and technical progress, which was called a “revolution in natural science,” since the scientific discoveries made during this period led to a revision of established ideas about the world around us.

Physicist P. N. Lebedev was the first in the world to establish general patterns, inherent in wave processes of various natures (sound, electromagnetic, hydraulic, etc.), made other discoveries in the field of wave physics. He created the first physical school in Russia.

The outstanding Russian scientist V.I. Vernadsky gained worldwide fame for his encyclopedic works, which served as the basis for the emergence of new scientific directions in geochemistry, biochemistry, and radiology. His teachings on the biosphere and noosphere laid the foundation for modern ecology. The innovation of the ideas he expressed is fully realized only now, when the world finds itself on the verge of an environmental catastrophe.

Russian physiologist I.P. Pavlov created the doctrine of higher nervous activity, of conditioned reflexes. In 1904 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for his research in the physiology of digestion. In 1908 Nobel Prize received by I. I. Mechnikov for his works on immunology and infectious diseases.
A number of outstanding discoveries in the theory and practice of aircraft construction were made by N. E. Zhukovsky. Zhukovsky's student and colleague was the outstanding mechanic and mathematician S. A. Chaplygin.

At the origins of modern cosmonautics stood a nugget, a teacher at the Kaluga gymnasium, K. E. Tsiolkovsky. In 1903, he published a number of brilliant works that substantiated the possibility of space flights and determined ways to achieve this goal.

In search of a social ideal.

Russia's entry into new era was accompanied by a search for an ideology that could not only explain the changes that were taking place, but also outline the prospects for the country's development. The most popular philosophical theory in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. there was Marxism. It captivated us with its logic, apparent simplicity, and most importantly, its versatility. In addition, Marxism had fertile soil in Russia in the form of the revolutionary tradition of the Russian intelligentsia and the uniqueness of the Russian national character with its thirst for justice and equality.

However, part of the Russian intelligentsia very soon became disillusioned with Marxism, in its unconditional recognition of the primacy of material life over spiritual life. And then revolution In 1905, the revolutionary principle of reorganizing society was also revised.

In 1909, a collection of articles “Milestones” was published, prepared by famous philosophers N.A. Berdyaev, S.L. Frank, S.N. Bulgakov, P.B. Struve and others. All of them were once keen on Marxism, and then switched to the position of idealism and the creation of a new religious philosophy. The authors of the collection presented a cruel account of the Russian intelligentsia, accusing them of dogmatism, adherence to outdated philosophical teachings of the 19th century, and ignorance modern philosophy, in nihilism, low legal consciousness. They believed that the intelligentsia’s huge mistake consisted of isolation from the people, atheism, oblivion and denigration of Russian history, etc. All these negative qualities, in their opinion, led to the fact that it was the Russian intelligentsia that was the main instigator of the revolution, which brought the country to the brink of a national catastrophe. The Vekhi people concluded that the ideas of revolutionary transformation were futile in Russia. They were convinced that social progress in the country is possible only through gradual, evolutionary changes, which must begin with the development of new religious and moral ideals based on Christian teaching. Russians religious philosophers They believed that the official Orthodox Church, which had tied itself too closely to the autocratic state, could not take on the role of the savior of Russian souls.

Literature.

The ambiguous nature of Russian society at the beginning of the 20th century. most clearly reflected in the Russian artistic culture of the Silver Age. On the one hand, stable traditions were preserved in the works of writers critical realism XIX century The leading positions were occupied by luminaries - L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov, V. G. Korolenko, D. N. Mamin-Sibiryak. I. A. Bunin, A. I. Kuprin, M. Gorky made their presence known.

At the same time, the voices of another generation are beginning to sound louder creative intelligentsia protesting against the main principle realistic art- the principle of direct image of the surrounding world. According to its representatives, art, being a synthesis of two opposite principles - matter and spirit, is capable of not only “displaying”, but also “transforming” the existing world, creating a new reality.

Symbolist poets became the founders of a new direction in art. They announced war materialistic worldview, arguing that only faith and determination are the basis of human existence and art. “Without faith in the divine principle,” asserted the patriarch of Russian symbolism Dm. Merezhkovsky, “there is no beauty on earth, no justice, no poetry, no freedom.” Symbolists believed that the poet is endowed with the ability to communicate with the transcendental world through artistic symbols.

Initially, symbolism took the form of decadence. This term meant a mood of decadence, melancholy and hopelessness, and pronounced individualism. These features are characteristic of the early poetry of K. Balmont, A. Blok, V. Bryusov.

Russian symbolism has become a global phenomenon. It is with him that the concept of “Silver Age” is primarily associated.

The works of the Symbolists sounded alarming feelings of impending catastrophes. But their poems also contained a romantic call for a new world order based on spiritual freedom and unity of people, and faith in the special historical destiny of Russia.

Acmeists came up with opposite ideas (from the Greek word “acme” - the highest degree of something, blooming power). They denied the mystical aspirations of the Symbolists and proclaimed the intrinsic value of real, earthly life. Acmeists called for returning words to their original, traditional meaning, freeing them from symbolic interpretations. The main evaluation criterion artistic creativity for the Acmeists (N. Gumilyov, S. Gorodetsky, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam) there was impeccable aesthetic taste, beauty and refinement of the artistic word.

Russian artistic culture of the early 20th century. also experienced the influence of avant-gardeism, which originated in the West and embraced all types of art. Avant-gardeism absorbed various artistic movements and styles that announced their break with traditional cultural values past eras and proclaimed the ideas of creating “new art”. Prominent representatives The Russian avant-garde were the futurists. Futurist poetry was different increased attention not to the content, but to the form of versification. Futurists constructed new words, used vulgar vocabulary, professional jargon, and the language of documents, posters and posters in their works. Collections of Futurist poems bore characteristic titles: “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste”, “Dead Moon”, “Roaring Parnassus”, etc.

Russian futurism was represented by several poetic groups. The most prominent names were gathered by the St. Petersburg group “Gilea” - V. Khlebnikov, D. Burliuk, A. Kruchenykh, V. Mayakovsky, V. Kamensky, E. Guro. Collections of poems and public speeches by I. Severyanin, who headed the “Association of Ego-Futurists,” enjoyed stunning success.

Painting.

Similar processes took place in Russian painting. Strong positions were held by representatives of the Russian academic school and the heirs of the Wanderers - I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov, S. A. Korovin. But the trendsetter was the style called “modern”. Followers of this trend created the creative society “World of Art”. “Miriskusniki” sharply criticized the Peredvizhniki, believing that the latter had caused enormous harm to Russian painting. They believed that art is an independent, valuable sphere human activity and it should not depend on political and social influences.

Over a long period (the association arose in 1898 and existed intermittently until 1924), the World of Art included almost all the major Russian artists; its most active members were A. Benois, L. Bakst, E. Lanceray, N. Roerich, K. Somov. “The World of Art” left a deep mark on the development of not only painting, but also opera, ballet, design art, art criticism, exhibition business.

In 1907, an exhibition called “Blue Rose” was opened in Moscow, in which A. Arapov, N. Krymov, P. Kuznetsov, N. Sapunov, M. Saryan and others took part, a total of 16 artists. These were searching youth, dissatisfied with the state of art, familiar with the achievements of Western artists and striving to find their individuality in the synthesis of Western experience and national traditions.

Representatives of the Blue Rose were closely associated with Symbolist poets. But symbolism in Russian painting has never been uniform style direction. It included, for example, such different artists in their painting systems as M. Vrubel, K. Petrov-Vodkin and others.

At the same time, groups representing the avant-garde direction in art appeared in Russian painting. In 1910, an exhibition called “Jack of Diamonds” was organized in Moscow, and in 1911 its participants united into a society with the same name. It existed until 1917. Among the activists of the “Jack of Diamonds” were P. Konchalovsky, I. Mashkov, A. Lentulov, R. Falk, V. Rozhdestvensky and others. In their work, the “Jacks of Diamonds” sought to finally free painting from the influence social and political life, literary and other subordination. In their opinion, in painting it is important to use only its inherent means - color, line, plasticity. They saw beauty in the very surface of the canvas, covered with a layer of paint, in the unique mixture of colors. Most popular genre“Jacks of Diamonds” was a still life.

A number of major Russian artists - V. Kandinsky, M. Chagall, P. Filonov and others - entered the history of world culture as representatives of unique styles that combined avant-garde trends with Russian national traditions.

Sculpture.

Sculpture also experienced a creative upsurge during this period. Significant successes were achieved by P. P. Trubetskoy, whose works showed impressionist tendencies. His sculptural portraits of L. N. Tolstoy, S. Yu. Witte, F. I. Chaliapin and others became widely known. They most consistently reflected the main artistic rule masters: to capture the still barely noticeable instantaneous internal movement of a person. An important milestone in the history of Russian monumental sculpture was the monument Alexander III, conceived as a kind of antipode to another great monument - “ To the Bronze Horseman» E. Falcone.

The combination of impressionism and modernist tendencies characterizes the work of A. S. Golubkina. The main feature of her works is not the display of a specific image or fact of life, and the creation of a generalized phenomenon: “Old Age” (1898), “Walking Man” (1903), “Soldier” (1907), “Sleepers” (1912), etc.
S. T. Konenkov left a significant mark on Russian art of the Silver Age. His work embodied the continuity of the traditions of realism in new directions. He went through a passion for Michelangelo (“Samson Breaking the Chains”), Russian folk wooden sculpture (“Lesovik”, “The Beggar Brethren”), Wandering traditions (“Stone Fighter”), traditional realistic portrait (“A.P. Chekhov” ). And with all this, he remained a master of bright creative individuality.

Architecture.

In the second half of the 19th century. new opportunities opened up for architecture. This was due to general technological progress. Fast growth cities, their industrial equipment, the development of transport, changes in public life constantly required new architectural forms and solutions. Not only in the capitals, but also in hundreds of provincial cities, train stations, restaurants, shops, markets, theaters and bank buildings were built. At the same time, the traditional construction of palaces, mansions, and estates continued. The main problem of architecture was the search for a new style. And just like in painting, the new direction in architecture was called “modern style”. One of the features of this direction was the stylization of Russian architectural motifs - the so-called neo-Russian style.
A church was built in the neo-Russian style in Abramtsevo (1881 - 1882), on which V. M. Vasnetsov, V. D. Polenov and A. S Mamontov worked. Subsequently, Vasnetsov implemented the Tretyakov Gallery project.

The most famous architect, whose work largely determined the development of Russian, especially Moscow, Art Nouveau, was F. O. Shekhtel. At the beginning of his work, he used medieval Gothic designs. The mansion of Z. G. Morozova (1893) and the house of A. N. Ryabushinsky (1900 - 1902) were built in this style in Moscow. Subsequently, Shekhtel more than once turned to the traditions of Russian wooden architecture. A clear example of this is the building of the Yaroslavl station in Moscow (1902 - 1904). Later, Shekhtel became close to the so-called rationalist modernity. This direction is characterized by a significant simplification of architectural forms and structures. The most significant buildings reflecting this trend were the Ryabushinsky Bank (1903), the printing house of the Morning of Russia newspaper in Moscow (1907), and the house of the Moscow merchant society.

During this period, along with the architects of the “new era,” neo-classicism (I.V. Zholtovsky) occupied a significant position; the technique of deliberately mixing different architectural styles. The most significant building in this regard was the building of the Metropol Hotel in Moscow (1900), built according to the design of the famous joy-builder V. F. Walcott.

Music, ballet, theater, cinema.

Beginning of the 20th century became the time of creative rise of the great Russian composers-innovators A. Scriabin, I. Stravinsky, S. Taneyev, S. Rachmaninov. These composers tried to go beyond traditional classical music and create new musical forms and images. Musical performing culture has also flourished significantly. The Russian vocal school was represented by the names of outstanding singers - F. Chaliapin, A. Nezhdanova, L. Sobinov, I. Ershov.

By the beginning of the 20th century. Russian ballet has taken leading positions in world ballet art. The Russian school of ballet relied on the academic traditions of the late 19th century and the stage productions of the outstanding choreographer M. Petipa, which became classics of world choreography. But at the same time, new trends appeared. Young directors A. Gorsky and M. Fokin put forward the principle of picturesqueness, according to which not only the choreographer and composer, but also the artist became full authors of the performance. The ballets of Gorsky and Fokine were designed by K. Korovin, A. Benois, L. Bakst, N. Roerich. Russian ballet school of the early 20th century. gave the world a galaxy of brilliant artists - A. Pavlov, T. Karsavin, V. Nijinsky and others.

A notable feature of the Silver Age culture was innovation in theatrical productions. They were associated with the names of outstanding directors - K. Stanislavsky, V. Meyerhold, E. Vakhtangov. K. Stanislavsky, the founder of the psychological acting school, believed that the future of theater lies in in-depth psychological realism, in solving super-tasks of acting transformation. Meyerhold gave preference to theatrical conventions, generalization, and used elements of folk farce and mask theater. E. Vakhtangov staged expressive, spectacular, joyful performances.

There was an interest in the connection various types creative activity. At the head of this process was the “World of Art,” which united not only artists, but also poets, philosophers, and musicians. The crowning achievement of the “World of Art” activities was the “Russian Seasons” organized by S. Diaghilev in Paris, presented by ballet performances, theatrical painting, music, etc.

Beginning of the 20th century - the time of the birth of a new art form - cinema. Since 1903, the first “electric theaters” and “illusions” began to appear in Russia, and by 1914 about 4 thousand cinemas had been built.

In 1908, the first Russian feature film, “Stenka Razin and the Princess,” was shot, and in 1911, the first full-length film, “The Defense of Sevastopol.” Cinematography developed rapidly and became very popular. In 1914, there were about 30 domestic film companies in Russia. The bulk of film production consisted of films with primitive melodramatic plots. Director Y. Protazanov, actors I. Mozzhukhin, V. Kholodnaya, V. Maksimov, A. Koonen and others gained worldwide fame.

The undoubted merit of cinema was its accessibility to all segments of the population. Russian films, created mainly as film adaptations of classical works, became the first sign in the formation of mass culture - an indispensable attribute bourgeois society.
Thus, the culture of the early 20th century. experienced extraordinary prosperity. At the same time, new trends in art proclaimed a departure from real life into the sphere of pure art. Despite the undoubted interest in folk cultural traditions, high achievements cultures remained inaccessible to broad sections of the people.

Document

From the report of S. P. Bobrov “Fundamentals of new Russian painting”

Currently... Russian purists have stopped studying in France. Having overcome the French call, Russian purists saw that in their homeland there was still so much untouched and undeveloped. Our amazing icons are the world crowns of Christian religious art, our old popular prints, northern embroideries, stone women, bas-reliefs on prosphora, on crosses and our old signs. There is so much new here, untouched by anyone. Now, it seems, artists love antiquity and are engaged in it, but for some reason they themselves do not go beyond cheap and vulgar stylization, not understanding, not feeling the enormous pictorial value of these artless masterpieces. But Russian purists, having looked at all these values, got used to them, entered their very soul. From now on, our native antiquity, our archaism, leads us into unknown distances.

Questions and tasks:

1. What characterized the cultural and spiritual life of Russian society at the beginning of the 20th century? What are the most significant cultural achievements of this period? What are the reasons for the explosion of creative activity during this period?

2. Tell us about the most important ones scientific discoveries Russian scientists at the beginning of the 20th century.

3. The question of the fate and purpose of Russia became at the beginning of the 20th century, especially after the revolution of 1905, the key issue of Russian philosophical thought. Why do you think?

4. Give a description of the leading trends in literature and painting. What caused the emergence of avant-garde styles in these areas of culture?

5. Determine the general features of the artistic culture of Russia at the turn of the century.

Expanding vocabulary:

Biosphere- the area of ​​distribution of life on Earth.
Dogmatism- a method of thinking based on dogmas - immutable truths that are not subject to criticism, without taking into account specific conditions.
Idealism- a direction in philosophy opposite to materialism in solving the main question of philosophy
Ideology- a system of ideas and views that reflect the attitude of various groups of people to the surrounding reality and to each other.
Nihilism- denial of generally accepted values: ideals, moral standards, culture, forms of social life.
Nobel Prize- a prize for outstanding achievements in the field of science, technology, literature, awarded annually by the Swedish Academy of Sciences at the expense of funds left by the Swedish inventor and industrialist A. Nobel.
Noosphere- a state of the biosphere in which intelligent human activity becomes a decisive factor in its development.
Symbolism- direction in art; focuses on artistic expression through the symbol of material objects and ideas that are beyond the senses and perceptions.
Sociocultural- a concept that captures the understanding of culture as a wide complex of social phenomena. This is not only art, science, but the whole complex material culture, social and political relations.
Futurism- a direction in art that denies the artistic and moral heritage, preaches a break with traditional culture and the creation of a new urban civilization.

§ 75. Silver age of Russian culture

The concept of the Silver Age.

The turning point period in Russia's life at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, associated with the transition to an industrial society, led to the destruction of many values ​​and age-old foundations of people's lives. It seemed that not only the world around us was changing, but also ideas about good and evil, beautiful and ugly, etc.

The understanding of these problems affected the sphere of culture. The flowering of culture during this period was unprecedented. It covered all types of creative activity and gave birth to a galaxy of brilliant names. This cultural phenomenon of the late XIX - early XX centuries. received the name of the Silver Age of Russian culture. It is also characterized by the greatest achievements, which again confirmed Russia's advanced positions in this field. But culture is becoming more complex, the results of creative activity are more contradictory.

Science and technology.

At the beginning of the twentieth century. The main headquarters of Russian science was the Academy of Sciences with a developed system of institutes. Universities with their scientific societies, as well as All-Russian congresses of scientists, played a significant role in the training of scientific personnel.

Research in the fields of mechanics and mathematics has achieved significant success, which has made it possible to develop new fields of science: aeronautics and electrical engineering. Research played a significant role in this N.E. Zhukovsky, the creator of hydro- and aerodynamics, works on the theory of aviation, which served as the basis for aviation science.

In 1913, the first domestic aircraft “Russian Knight” and “Ilya Muromets” were created at the Russian-Baltic Plant in St. Petersburg. In 1911 . G. E. Kotelnikov designed the first backpack parachute.

Proceedings V. I. Vernadsky formed the basis of biochemistry, biogeochemistry and radiogeology. He was distinguished by his breadth of interests, the formulation of deep scientific problems and the anticipation of discoveries in a wide variety of fields.

Great Russian physiologist I. P. Pavlov created the doctrine of conditioned reflexes, in which he gave a materialistic explanation of the higher nervous activity of humans and animals. In 1904, I. P. Pavlov, the first Russian scientist, was awarded the Nobel Prize for research in the field of digestive physiology. Four years later (1908) he was awarded this prize I. I. Metsnikov for research into problems of immunology and infectious diseases.

"Milestones".

Soon after the revolution of 1905 -1907. Several famous publicists (N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, P.B. Struve, A.S. Izgoev, S.L. Frank, B.A. Kistyakovsky, M.O. Gershenzon) published the book “Milestones. Collection of articles about the Russian intelligentsia."

The authors of Vekhi believed that the revolution should have ended after the publication of the Manifesto on October 17, as a result of which the intelligentsia received the political freedoms they had always dreamed of. The intelligentsia was accused of ignoring the national and religious interests of Russia, suppressing dissent, disrespecting the law, and inciting the darkest instincts among the masses. The Vekhi people argued that the Russian intelligentsia was alien to its people, who hated it, and would never understand it.

Many publicists, primarily supporters of the cadets, spoke out against the Vekhovites. Their works were published by the popular newspaper “Novoe Vremya”.

Literature.

Russian literature includes many names that have gained worldwide fame. Among them I. A. Bunin, A. I. Kuprin and M. Gorky. Bunin continued the traditions and preached the ideals of Russian culture of the 19th century. For a long time, Bunin's prose was rated much lower than his poetry. And only “The Village” (1910) and “Sukhodol” (1911), one of the themes of which was the social conflict in the village, made people talk about him as a great writer. Bunin's stories and tales, such as “Antonov Apples” and “The Life of Arsenyev”, brought him world fame, which was confirmed by the Nobel Prize.

If Bunin's prose was distinguished by rigor, precision and perfection of form, and the author's outward dispassion, then Kuprin's prose revealed the spontaneity and passion characteristic of the writer's personality. His favorite heroes were people who were spiritually pure, dreamy, and at the same time weak-willed and impractical. Often love in Kuprin’s works ends in the death of the hero (“Garnet Bracelet”, “Duel”).

The work of Gorky, who went down in history as the “petrel of the revolution,” was different. He had the powerful temperament of a fighter. New, revolutionary themes and new, previously unknown literary heroes appeared in his works (“Mother”, “Foma Gordeev”, “The Artamonov Case”). In his early stories (“Makar Chudra”) Gorky acted as a romantic.

New directions in literature and art.

The most important and largest movement in literature and art of the 90s of the 19th and early 20th centuries. was symbolism, the recognized ideological leader of which was a poet and philosopher V. S. Soloviev. Scientific knowledge of the world

Symbolists opposed the construction of the world in the process of creativity. Symbolists believed that the higher spheres of life cannot be known in traditional ways, they are accessible only through knowledge secret meanings characters. Symbolist poets did not strive to be understood by everyone. In their poems they addressed selected readers, making them their co-authors.

Symbolism contributed to the emergence of new movements, one of which was Acmeism (from the Greek . Akme- blooming power). The recognized head of the direction was N. S. Gumilev. Acmeists proclaimed a return from the polysemy of images, metaphorical objective world and the exact meaning of the word. Members of the Acmeist circle were A.A.Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam. According to Gumilyov, Acmeism was supposed to discover the value human life. The world must be accepted in all its diversity. Acmeists used different cultural traditions in their creativity.

Futurism was also a kind of offshoot of symbolism, but it took the most extreme aesthetic form. For the first time, Russian futurism declared itself in 1910 with the release of the collection “Tank of Judges” (D.D. Burlyuk, V.V. Khlebnikov and V.V. Kamensky). Soon the authors of the collection, together with V. Mayakovsky and A. Kruchenykh, formed a group of cubo-futurists. The futurists were poets of the street - they were supported by radical students and the lumpen proletariat. Most of the futurists, in addition to poetry, also engaged in painting (the Burliuk brothers, A. Kruchenykh, V.V. Mayakovsky). In turn, futurist artists K. S. Malevich and V. V. Kandinsky wrote poetry.

Futurism became the poetry of protest, seeking to destroy the existing order. At the same time, the Futurists, like the Symbolists, dreamed of creating art that could transform the world. Most of all they feared indifference to them and therefore took advantage of any occasion for a public scandal.

Painting.

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. Such prominent Russian painters of the second half of the last century as V. I. Surikov, the Vasnetsov brothers, I. E. Repin continued their creative activity.

At the end of the century, K. A Korovin and M. A Vrubel came to Russian painting. Korovin's landscapes were different bright colors and romantic elation, a sense of air in the picture. The brightest representative of symbolism in painting was M.A. Vrubel. His paintings are like a mosaic, molded from sparkling pieces. The color combinations in them had their own semantic meanings. Vrubel's plots amaze with fantasy.

A significant role in Russian art of the early twentieth century. the movement played World of Art", which arose as a peculiar reaction to the movement of the Itinerants. The ideological basis of the works of the “miriskusniks” was the depiction not of the harsh realities of modern life, but of the eternal themes of world painting. One of the ideological leaders of the “World of Art” was A. N. Benois, who had versatile talents. He was a painter, graphic artist, theater artist, and art historian.

The activities of the “World of Art” were contrasted with the creativity of young artists grouped in the organizations “Jack of Diamonds” and “Youth Union”. These societies did not have their own program; they included symbolists, futurists, and cubists, but each artist had his own creative personality.

Such artists were P. N. Filonov and V. V. Kandinsky.

Filonov gravitated towards futurism in his painting technique. Kandinsky - to the latest art, often depicting only the outlines of objects. He can be called the father of Russian abstract painting.

Not so were the paintings of K. S. Petrov-Vodkin, who preserved the national traditions of painting in his canvases, but gave them a special form. Such are his paintings “Bathing the Red Horse,” reminiscent of the image of St. George the Victorious, and “Girls on the Volga,” where the connection with Russian realistic painting of the 19th century is clearly visible.

Music.

The largest Russian composers of the early twentieth century were A.I. Scriabin and S.V. Rachmaninov, whose work, excited and upbeat in nature, was especially close to wide public circles during the period of intense anticipation of the revolution of 1905-1907. At the same time, Scriabin evolved from romantic traditions to symbolism, anticipating many innovative trends of the revolutionary era . The structure of Rachmaninov's music was more traditional. It clearly shows the connection with the musical heritage of the past century. In his works, the state of mind was usually combined with pictures of the outside world, poetry of Russian nature, or images of the past.

The first decade of the 20th century went down in the history of Russian culture under the name "Silver Age". It was a time of unprecedented flowering of all types of creative activity, the birth of new trends in art, the emergence of a galaxy of brilliant names that became the pride of not only Russian but also world culture.

The artistic culture of the turn of the century is an important page in cultural heritage Russia. Ideological inconsistency and ambiguity were inherent not only in artistic movements and trends, but also in the work of individual writers, artists, and composers. This was a period of renewal of various types and genres of artistic creativity, rethinking, “general revaluation of values,” in the words of M. V. Nesterov. The attitude towards the legacy of revolutionary democrats became ambiguous even among progressive thinking figures culture. The primacy of sociality in the Itinerant movement was seriously criticized by many realist artists.

In Russian artistic culture of the late XIX - early XX centuries. became widespread « decadence» , denoting such phenomena in art as the rejection of civil ideals and faith in reason, immersion in the sphere of individualistic experiences. These ideas were an expression of the social position of part of the artistic intelligentsia, which tried to “escape” the complexities of life into the world of dreams, unreality, and sometimes mysticism. But even in this way she reflected in her work the crisis phenomena of the then social life.

Decadent moods captured figures of various artistic movements, including realistic ones. However, more often these ideas were inherent in modernist movements.

Concept "modernism"(French toe1erpe - modern) included many phenomena of literature and art of the twentieth century, born at the beginning of this century, new in comparison with the realism of the previous century. However, even in the realism of this time, new artistic and aesthetic qualities appear: the “framework” of a realistic vision of life is expanding, a search is underway for ways of personal self-expression in literature and art. The characteristic features of art are synthesis, an indirect reflection of life, in contrast to the critical realism of the 19th century with its inherent concrete reflection of reality. This feature of art is associated with the wide spread of neo-romanticism in literature, painting, music, and the birth of a new stage realism.

At the beginning of the 20th century. There were many literary trends. This is symbolism, and futurism, and even the ego-futurism of Igor Severyanin. All these directions are very different, have different ideals, pursue different goals, but they agree on one thing: to work on the rhythm, the word, to bring the playing of sounds to perfection.

At the same time, the voice of the representatives of realism of the new generation began to sound, protesting against the main principle of realistic art - the direct image of the surrounding world. According to the ideologists of this generation, art, being a synthesis of two opposite principles - matter and spirit, is capable of not only “displaying”, but also “transforming” the existing world, creating a new reality.

Chapter 1.Education

The modernization process included not only fundamental changes in the socio-economic and political spheres, but also a significant increase in literacy and educational level of the population. To the credit of the government, they took this need into account. Government spending on public education since 1900 to 1915 increased more than 5 times.

The main focus was on primary schools. The government intended to introduce universal elementary education. However, school reform was carried out inconsistently. Several types have survived primary school, the most common were parochial ones (in 1905 there were about 43 thousand of them). The number of zemstvo primary schools increased (in 1904 there were 20.7 thousand, and in 1914 - 28.2 thousand). More than 2.5 million students studied in primary schools of the Ministry of Public Education, and in 1914. - already about 6 million.

The restructuring of the secondary education system began. The number of gymnasiums and secondary schools grew. In gymnasiums, the number of hours allocated to the study of natural and mathematical subjects increased. Graduates of real schools were given the right to enter higher technical educational institutions, and after passing the exam in Latin to the physics and mathematics faculties of universities.

On the initiative of entrepreneurs, commercial (7-8-year) schools were created, which provided general education and special training. In them, unlike gymnasiums and real schools, joint education of boys and girls was introduced. In 1913 55 thousand people, including 10 thousand girls, studied in 250 commercial schools, which were under the patronage of commercial and industrial capital. The number of secondary specialized educational institutions has increased: industrial, technical, railway, mining, land surveying, agricultural, etc.

The network of higher educational institutions has expanded: new technical universities have appeared in St. Petersburg, Novocherkassk, and Tomsk. A university was opened in Saratov, new technical universities appeared in St. Petersburg, Novocherkassk, Tomsk. To ensure the reform of primary schools, pedagogical institutes were opened in Moscow and St. Petersburg, as well as over 30 higher courses for women, which marked the beginning of mass access for women to higher education. By 1914 there were about 100 higher educational institutions, in which approximately 130 thousand people studied. Moreover, over 60% of students did not belong to the nobility. Higher State Officials were trained in privileged educational institutions - lyceums.

However, despite advances in education, 3/4 of the country's population remained illiterate. Due to high tuition fees, middle and high schools were inaccessible to a significant part of the population. 43 kopecks were spent on education. per capita, while in England and Germany - about 4 rubles, in the USA - 7 rubles. (in terms of our money).

Chapter 2.The science

Russia's entry into the era of industrialization was marked by successes in the development of science. At the beginning of the 20th century. the country made a significant contribution to world scientific and technological progress, which was called the “revolution in natural science,” since the discoveries made during this period led to a revision of established ideas about the world around us.

Physicist P.N. Lebedev was the first in the world to establish the general laws inherent in wave processes of various natures (sound, electromagnetic, hydraulic, etc.), and made other discoveries in the field of wave physics. He created the first physical school in Russia.

A number of outstanding discoveries in the theory and practice of aircraft construction were made by N. E. Zhukovsky. Zhukovsky’s student and colleague was the outstanding mechanic and mathematician S. A. Chaplygin.

At the origins of modern cosmonautics stood a nugget, a teacher at the Kaluga gymnasium K. E. Tsiolkovsky. In 1903. he published a number of brilliant works that substantiated the possibility of space flights and determined ways to achieve this goal.

The outstanding scientist Vernadsky V.I. gained worldwide fame thanks to his encyclopedic works, which served as the basis for the emergence of new scientific directions in geochemistry, biochemistry, and radiology. His teachings on the biosphere and noosphere laid the foundation for modern ecology. The innovation of the ideas he expressed is fully realized only now, when the world finds itself on the brink of an environmental catastrophe.

Research in the field of biology, psychology, and human physiology was characterized by an unprecedented surge. Pavlov I.P. created the doctrine of higher nervous activity, of conditioned reflexes. In 1904 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for his research in the physiology of digestion. In 1908 The Nobel Prize was awarded to the biologist I. I. Mechnikov for his works on immunology and infectious diseases.

The beginning of the 20th century - the heyday of the Russian historical science. The largest specialists in the field of national history were Klyuchevsky V.O., Kornilov A.A., Pavlov-Silvansky N.P., Platonov S.F. Vinogradov P.G., Vipper R. Yu., Tarle E. dealt with the problems of general history V. The Russian school of Oriental studies has gained worldwide fame.

The beginning of the century was marked by the appearance of works by representatives of original Russian religious and philosophical thought (Berdyaev N.A., Bulgakov N.I., Solovyov V.S., Florensky P.A., etc.). The so-called Russian idea - the problem of originality - occupied a large place in the works of philosophers. historical path Russia, the uniqueness of its spiritual life, the special purpose of Russia in the world.

At the beginning of the 20th century, scientific and technical societies were popular. They united scientists, practitioners, amateur enthusiasts and existed on contributions from their members and private donations. Some received small government subsidies. The most famous were: the Free Economic Society (it was founded back in 1765), the Society of History and Antiquities (1804), the Society of Amateurs Russian literature(1811), Geographical, Technical, Physico-chemical, Botanical, Metallurgical, several medical, agricultural, etc. These societies not only served as centers of scientific research, but also widely disseminated scientific and technical knowledge among the population. A characteristic feature of the scientific life of that time were congresses of naturalists, doctors, engineers, lawyers, archaeologists, etc.

Chapter 3.Literature

The most revealing image "Silver Age" appeared in literature. On the one hand, the writers’ works maintained strong traditions of critical realism. Tolstoy in his last works of art raised the problem of individual resistance to ossified norms of life (“The Living Corpse”, “Father Sergius”, “After the Ball”). His appeal letters to Nicholas II and journalistic articles are imbued with pain and anxiety for the fate of the country, the desire to influence the authorities, block the road to evil and protect all the oppressed. The main idea of ​​Tolstoy's journalism is the impossibility of eliminating evil through violence. During these years, Anton Pavlovich Chekhov created the plays “Three Sisters” and “The Cherry Orchard,” in which he reflected the important changes taking place in society. Socially sensitive subjects were also favored by young writers. Ivan Alekseevich Bunin studied not only the external side of the processes taking place in the village (stratification of the peasantry, the gradual withering away of the nobility), but also the psychological consequences of these phenomena, how they influenced the souls of the Russian people (“Village”, “Sukhodol”, cycle “ peasant stories). Kuprin A.I. showed the unsightly side of army life: the lack of rights of soldiers, the emptiness and lack of spirituality of the “gentlemen officers” (“Duel”). One of the new phenomena in literature was the reflection in it of the life and struggle of the proletariat. The initiator of this topic was Maxim Gorky (“Enemies”, “Mother”).

The lyrics of the “Silver Age” are diverse and musical. The epithet “silver” itself sounds like a bell. The Silver Age is a whole constellation of poets. Poets - musicians. The poems of the “Silver Age” are the music of words. In these verses there was not a single extra sound, not a single unnecessary comma, not a single point placed out of place. Everything is thoughtful, clear and musical.

In the first decade of the 20th century, a whole galaxy of talented “peasant” poets came to Russian poetry - Sergei Yesenin, Nikolai Klyuev, Sergei Klychkov.

The founders of a new direction in art were symbolist poets who declared war on the materialistic worldview, arguing that faith and religion are the cornerstone of human existence and art. They believed that poets are endowed with the ability to connect with the transcendental world through artistic symbols. Initially, symbolism took the form of decadence. This term meant a mood of decadence, melancholy and hopelessness, and pronounced individualism. These features were characteristic of the early poetry of Balmont K.D., Alexander Blok, Bryusov V.Ya.

After 1909 comes new stage in the development of symbolism. It is painted in Slavophile tones, demonstrates contempt for the “rationalistic” West, and foreshadows the death of Western civilization, represented, among other things, by official Russia. At the same time, he turns to spontaneous popular forces, to Slavic paganism, tries to penetrate the depths of the Russian soul and sees in Russian folk life the roots of the “rebirth” of the country. These motifs sounded especially vividly in the works of Blok (the poetic cycles “On the Kulikovo Field”, “Motherland”) and A. Bely (“Silver Dove”, “Petersburg”). Russian symbolism has become a global phenomenon. It is with him that the concept of “Silver Age” is primarily associated.

Opponents of the Symbolists were the Acmeists (from the Greek “acme” - the highest degree of something, blooming power). They denied the mystical aspirations of the Symbolists, proclaimed the intrinsic value of real life, and called for returning words to their original meaning, freeing from symbolic interpretations. The main criterion for assessing the creativity of acmeists (Gumilyov N. S., Anna Akhmatova, O. E. Mandelstam)

impeccable aesthetic taste, beauty and refinement of artistic expression.

Russian artistic culture of the early 20th century was influenced by avant-gardeism that originated in the West and embraced all types of art. This movement absorbed various artistic movements that announced their break with traditional cultural values ​​and proclaimed the idea of ​​​​creating “new art.” Prominent representatives of the Russian avant-garde were the futurists (from the Latin “futurum” - future). Their poetry was distinguished by increased attention not to the content, but to the form of poetic construction. The futurists' programmatic settings were oriented towards defiant anti-aestheticism. In their works they used vulgar vocabulary, professional jargon, the language of documents, posters and posters. Collections of Futurist poems bore characteristic titles: “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste,” “Dead Moon,” etc. Russian futurism was represented by several poetic groups. The most prominent names were gathered by the St. Petersburg group “Gilea” - V. Khlebnikov, D. D. Burlyuk, Vladimir Mayakovsky, A. E. Kruchenykh, V. V. Kamensky. Collections of poems and public speeches by I. Severyanin enjoyed stunning success

The futurists especially succeeded in this. Futurism completely abandoned the old literary traditions, “old language”, “old words”, proclaimed a new form of words, independent of content, i.e. a new language was literally invented. Working on words and sounds became an end in itself, while the meaning of poetry was completely forgotten. Take, for example, V. Khlebnikov’s poem “Perverten”:

Horses, trampling, monk.

But it’s not speech, it’s black.

Let's go young, down with copper.

The rank is called with a sword on the back.

How long does hunger last?

The spirit of the crow's paws fell and the spirit of the crow fell...

There is no meaning in this poem, but it is remarkable in that each line is read from left to right, and from right to left.

New words appeared, were invented, and were composed. From just one word “laughter” an entire poem, “The Spell of Laughter,” was born:

Oh, laugh, you laughers!

Oh, laugh, you laughers!

That they laugh with laughter, that they laugh with laughter,

Oh, laugh merrily!

Oh, the laughter of mockers - the laughter of clever laughers!

Oh, make these mocking laughers laugh!

Smeivo, smeivo,

Laugh, laugh, laugh, laugh,

Laughers, laughers.

Oh, laugh, you laughers!

Oh, laugh, you laughers.

Glava 4.Painting

Similar processes took place in Russian painting. Representatives of the realistic school held strong positions, and the Society of Itinerants was active. Repin I. E. graduated in 1906. grandiose painting “Meeting of the State Council”. In revealing the events of the past, V.I. Surikov was primarily interested in the people as a historical force, creativity in man. The realistic foundations of creativity were also preserved by M. V. Nesterov.

However, the trendsetter was the style called “modern”. Modernist quests affected the work of such major realist artists as K. A. Korovin, V. A. Serov. Supporters of this direction united in the “World of Art” society. They took a critical position towards the Peredvizhniki, believing that the latter, performing a function not inherent in art, harmed painting. Art, in their opinion, is an independent sphere of activity, and it should not depend on social influences. Over a long period (from 1898 to 1924) the “World of Art” included almost everyone major artists-- Benois A. N., Bakst L. S., Kustodiev B. M., Lansere E. E., Malyavin F. A., Roerich N. K., Somov K. A.. “The world of art” left a deep trace in the development of not only painting, but also opera, ballet, decorative art, art criticism, and exhibition business. In 1907 An exhibition entitled “Blue Rose” was opened in Moscow, in which 16 artists took part (P. V. Kuznetsov, N. N. Sapunov, M. S. Saryan, etc.). These were searching youth who sought to find their individuality in the synthesis of Western experience and national traditions. Representatives of the “Blue Rose” were associated with symbolist poets, whose performances were a modern attribute of vernissages. But symbolism in Russian painting has never been a single direction. He included, for example, such different artists in their style as M. A. Vrubel, K. S. Petrov-Vodkin and others.

A number of the greatest masters - Kandinsky V.V., Lentulov A.V., Chagall M. Z., Filonov P.N. and others - went down in the history of world culture as a representative of unique styles that combined avant-garde trends with Russian national traditions.

Chapter 5.Sculpture

Sculpture also experienced a creative upsurge. Her awakening was largely due to the trends of impressionism. P. P. Trubetskoy achieved significant success on the path of renewal. His sculptural portraits of Tolstoy, Witte, Chaliapin and others became widely known. An important milestone in the history of Russian monumental sculpture was the monument to Alexander III, opened in St. Petersburg in October 1909. It was conceived as a kind of antipode to another great monument - “The Bronze Horseman” by E. Falcone.

The combination of impressionism and modernist tendencies characterizes the work of A. S. Golubkina. At the same time, the main feature of her works is not the display of a specific image, but the creation of a generalized phenomenon: “Old Age” (1898), “Walking Man” (1903), “Soldier” (1907 ) “Sleepers” (1912), etc.

S.T. Konenkov left a significant mark on Russian art. His sculpture embodied the continuity of the traditions of realism in new directions. He went through a passion for the work of Michelangelo (“Samson”), Russian folk wooden sculpture (“Lesovik”), the Wandering traditions (“Stonebreaker”), and traditional realistic portrait (“A.P. Chekhov”). And with all this, Konenkov remained a master of bright creative individuality. In general, the Russian sculptural school was little affected by avant-garde trends and did not develop such a complex range of innovative aspirations characteristic of painting.

Chapter 6.Architecture

In the second half of the 19th century, new opportunities opened up for architecture. This was due to technological progress. The rapid growth of cities, their industrial equipment, the development of transport, and changes in public life required new architectural solutions. Not only in the capitals, but also in provincial cities, train stations, restaurants, shops, markets, theaters and bank buildings were built. At the same time, the traditional construction of palaces, mansions, and estates continued. The main problem of architecture was the search for a new style. And just like in painting, the new direction in architecture was called “modern”. One of the features of this direction was the stylization of Russian architectural motifs - the so-called neo-Russian style.

The most famous architect, whose work largely determined the development of Russian, especially Moscow Art Nouveau, was F. O. Shekhtel. At the beginning of his work, he relied not on Russian, but on medieval Gothic models. The mansion of manufacturer S.P. Ryabushinsky (1900-1902) was built in this style. Subsequently, Shekhtel more than once turned to the traditions of Russian wooden architecture. In this regard, the building of the Yaroslavl Station in Moscow (1902-1904) is very indicative. In subsequent years, the architect is increasingly moving closer to the direction called “rationalistic modernism,” which is characterized by a significant simplification of architectural forms and structures. The most significant buildings reflecting this trend were the Ryabushinsky Bank (1903), the printing house of the newspaper “Morning of Russia” (1907).

At the same time, along with the architects of the “new wave”, significant positions were held by fans of neoclassicism (I.V. Zholtovsky), as well as masters who used the technique of mixing different sculptural styles (eclecticism). The most indicative of this was the architectural design of the Metropol Hotel building in Moscow (1900), built according to the design of V. F. Walcott.

Chapter 7.Music, ballet, theater, cinema

The beginning of the 20th century is the time of the creative rise of the great Russian composer-innovators A. N. Scriabin. I. F. Stravinsky, S. I. Taneyev, S. V. Rachmaninov. In their work they tried to go beyond traditional classical music and create new musical forms and images. Musical performing culture has also achieved significant flourishing. The Russian vocal school was represented by the names of outstanding opera singers F. I. Shalyapina, A. V. Nezhdanova, L. V. Sobinova, 3. Ershova.

By the beginning of the 20th century. Russian ballet has taken leading positions in the world choreographic art. The Russian school of ballet relied on the academic traditions of the late 19th century and the stage productions of the outstanding choreographer M. I. Petipa, which became classics. At the same time, Russian ballet has not escaped new trends. Young directors A. A. Gorsky and M. I. Fokin, in contrast to the aesthetics of academicism, put forward the principle of picturesqueness, according to which not only the choreographer-composer, but also the artist became full-fledged authors of the performance. The ballets of Gorsky and Fokin were staged in walkie-talkies by K. A. Korovin, A. N. Benois, L. S. Bakst, N. K. Roerich.

The Russian ballet school of the “Silver Age” gave the world a galaxy of brilliant dancers - Anna Pavlova, T. Karsavina, V. Nijinsky and others.

A notable feature of the culture of the early 20th century. became the works of outstanding theater directors. K. S. Stanislavsky, the founder of the psychological acting school, believed that the future of theater lies in in-depth psychological realism, in solving the most important tasks of acting transformation. V. E. Meyerhold conducted searches in the field of theatrical conventions, generalization, the use of elements of folk farce and

theater of masks

© Museum named after. A. A. BakhrushinaA. Ya. Golovin. Scary game. Scenery sketch for the drama by M. Yu. Lermontov

E. B. Vakhtangov preferred expressive, spectacular, joyful performances.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the tendency to combine various types of creative activity became more and more clear. At the head of this process was the “World of Art,” which united not only artists, but also poets, philosophers, and musicians. In 1908-1913. S. P. Diaghilev organized “Russian Seasons” in Paris, London, Rome and other capitals of Western Europe, presented by ballet and opera performances, theatrical painting, music, etc.

In the first decade of the 20th century in Russia, following France, a new art form appeared - cinema. In 1903 The first “electric theaters” and “illusions” appeared, and by 1914 about 4 thousand cinemas had already been built. In 1908 The first Russian feature film “Stenka Razin and the Princess” was shot, and in 1911 the first full-length film “The Defense of Sevastopol” was shot. Cinematography developed rapidly and became very popular. In 1914 There were about 30 domestic film companies in Russia. And although the bulk of film production consisted of films with primitive melodramatic plots, world-famous filmmakers appeared: director Ya. A. Protazanov, actors I. I. Mozzhukhin, V. V. Kholodnaya, A. G. Koonen. The undoubted merit of cinema was its accessibility to all segments of the population. Russian films, created mainly as film adaptations of classical works, became the first sign in the formation of “mass culture” - an indispensable attribute of bourgeois society.

Conclusion

How much new the “Silver Age” of poetry brought to the music of words, what a huge amount of work was done, how many new words and rhythms were created, it seems that music and poetry were united. This is true, because... Many poems of the poets of the “Silver” Age were set to music, and we listen and sing them, laugh and cry over them. . .

Much of the creative fervor of that time was included in further development Russian culture is still the property of all Russians cultured people. But then there was the intoxication of creativity, novelty, tension, struggle, challenge.

In conclusion, with the words of N. Berdyaev, I would like to describe all the horror, all the tragedy of the situation in which the creators of spiritual culture, the flower of the nation, found themselves, the best minds not only Russia, but also the world.

“The misfortune of the cultural renaissance of the early 20th century was that in it the cultural elite was isolated in a small circle and cut off from the broad social trends of the time. This had fatal consequences in the character that the Russian revolution took...Russian people of that time lived on different floors and even in different centuries. The cultural renaissance did not have any broad social radiation.... Many supporters and exponents of the cultural renaissance remained leftists, sympathized with the revolution, but there was a cooling towards social issues, there was an absorption in new problems of a philosophical, aesthetic, religious, mystical nature that remained alien to people , actively participated in social movement... The intelligentsia committed an act of suicide. In Russia before the revolution, two races were formed, as it were. And the fault was on both sides, that is, on the figures of the Renaissance, on their social and moral indifference...

The schism characteristic of Russian history, the schism that grew throughout the 19th century, the abyss that unfolded between the upper, refined cultural layer and broad circles, popular and intellectual, led to the fact that the Russian cultural renaissance fell into this opening abyss. The revolution began to destroy this cultural renaissance and persecute the creators of culture... Workers of Russian spiritual culture, for the most part, were forced to move abroad. In part, this was retribution for the social indifference of the creators of spiritual culture.”

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