Characteristics of verbal teaching methods. Brief description of scientific research methods in psychology

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In psychology, there are various classifications of research methods. Let us consider a classification whose criterion is research problem.

1) Problem identifying and describing psychological facts They are solved by observation, conversation (questionnaire, survey, interview), method of studying the products of activity (study of documents, content analysis).

2) More complex task studying patterns, that is, identifying the presence of a stable repeating connection solves the experiment (laboratory and natural).

3) Task identifying mechanisms, i.e. cause-and-effect relationships, in psychology, it is solved by a formative experiment (transformative experiment, experimental genetic method).

Observation– systematic, purposeful and in a certain way recorded perception of mental phenomena in the natural conditions of everyday life. This method is one of the most accessible and widely used in psychology. When conducting observation, certain conditions must be observed.

1. Before any observation, the goal is formulated: what mental manifestation will be studied.

2. Depending on the purpose of the study, an object is selected (a person of the appropriate gender and age) and the situations in which the observation will be carried out.

3. When observing, it is necessary to maintain the natural living conditions of the research object. To do this, you should first become acquainted with the group where the observation will be carried out and adapt to this environment in 2–3 days. Then the observed behave relaxed and natural.

4. In order to preserve natural conditions, the researcher does not interfere with the activities of the object of study, who does not know that he is being observed.

5. It must be remembered that social stereotypes can affect the objectivity of recording and processing data. If a positive attitude has been formed towards the object of observation, then the researcher may not notice negative mental manifestations, and if he records them, he will most likely explain them as accidental. Conversely, with a negative attitude, the researcher may not notice the positive aspects, but concentrate his attention on negative facts and, when interpreting the data, explain them as natural and constant.



6. Observation provides objective data if it is carried out consistently and systematically, i.e. the subject of the study is observed at least 2–3 times in the same types of activities. This is due to the fact that the observed facts are not separated from many incidental phenomena.

7. It is necessary to develop and master in advance ways of recording data in the protocol. One should make a “photographic” record of all psychological facts without distorting or changing them. The protocol sheet is usually divided into two parts. The first part records the observed facts, and the second - their possible interpretation (i.e. interpretation).

The observation method has the following positive features:

· not knowing that he is the object of research, a person behaves freely, naturally, the manifestations of his psyche are not distorted;

· the researcher can see the personality of the observed as a whole, each fact is perceived as part of it;

· observation is not limited by age: it is conducted over all types of activities and behavior of a person of any age.

At the same time, the observation has a number of shortcomings:

· observed facts are merged with many associated phenomena;

· the researcher takes a wait-and-see position, not being able to interfere with the activities of the objects of observation. A psychic phenomenon may not manifest itself unless a corresponding situation accidentally arises;

· with the help of observation, it is impossible to quickly collect a large amount of material for two reasons: firstly, one person needs to be observed repeatedly, and secondly, the researcher cannot cause the phenomenon of interest to him, but must wait for it to happen;

· in the process of repeated observation it is impossible to obtain absolutely identical psychological facts, and therefore it is impossible to verify the initially obtained data;

· some subjectivity is possible when observing and processing data. An observer, in the spirit of his expectations, may attribute to a person thoughts and feelings that are unusual for him;

· Without the use of special recording tools, it can be difficult to accurately and correctly record observed facts. When recording facts, the researcher records them in a descriptive form, which significantly complicates their processing and interpretation. This method limits the use of mathematical data processing.

Conversation – method of obtaining information based on verbal (verbal) communication (i.e. in the process of bilateral or multilateral discussion of an issue of interest to the researcher). The effectiveness of the conversation depends on compliance with the following requirements:

1. Preparing and conducting a conversation includes setting a goal and choosing material for it. Questions for conversation should be clear, concise, specific, not too general, and should not prompt the person to answer.

2. The researcher memorizes the questions and asks them to all respondents in a strictly defined order, seeking detailed answers. It is possible to use clarifying questions if the need arises during the conversation.

3. The conversation is conducted individually in a separate, carefully selected room.

4. Before conducting a conversation, it is necessary to select the object of research and establish a trusting relationship with him. To do this, you can first talk to him about a topic that interests him and only then proceed to pre-written questions. The conversation should be conducted casually, tactfully, unobtrusively and in no case be of the nature of “questioning”. It is very important that the researcher shows the person that he is interested in talking with him and listens to his answers.

5. Methods for recording data are preliminarily developed. It is possible to use technical means (tape recorder, voice recorder). It is allowed to separate the functions of the researcher and the protocolist. The interviewee's answers, his behavior, and emotional manifestations are recorded in detail in the protocol.

Advantages conversations are:

· the ability to simultaneously explore many aspects of the human psyche;

· the ability to quickly collect a fairly large amount of material about both one person and a group;

· the researcher is more active than in observation, as he asks questions;

· the possibility of repeated testing in order to clarify changes (for example, age-related);

· Possibility of application at different stages of research.

The conversation method has flaws:

· manifestations of subjectivity, since the selection of material, drawing up questions, getting into contact with the respondent, recording and interpreting answers depend on the skills of the researcher;

· age restrictions in the use of conversation. A child cannot always give an account of his experiences, feelings, explain his preferences and actions, since he is only mastering speech as a means of communication.

Survey - conversation with a standard set of questions. The survey can be conducted orally and in writing:

1) interview –a method of obtaining psychological information using oral questioning;

2) survey(fr. enquête- a list of questions) – obtaining information in the form of written responses from respondents to pre-formulated questions.

Method of analyzing activity products. Various documents, essays, diaries, drawings, other creative works, etc. can be considered as products of activity.

Advantages this method:

· the ability to collect a sufficiently large amount of factual material from both one person and a group of people in a short time;

· with constant use, the opportunity to obtain qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the mental characteristics of the subjects being studied;

· the possibility of repeated repetition to find out how natural the obtained fact is;

· since the result of mental activity is embodied in a material product, this item can be assessed by an infinite number of people (expert assessment);

· the material product can be stored for a long time;

· maintaining naturalness in the manifestation of the psychological characteristics of the object of study, which does not know that research is being conducted with it.

Flaws method of analyzing activity products:

· it can be used only when the child has already begun to master a certain type of activity;

· processing the obtained data sometimes turns out to be extremely difficult, since it requires specially developed analysis schemes, which depends on the researcher’s ability to highlight all the psychological features of the resulting product. Then a violation of objectivity and the manifestation of subjectivism is possible, for example, when assessing the degree of originality of the drawing.

When studying documents, a special technique is used, called "content analysis"(literally “content analysis”) . This is a fairly formalized method of document analysis, when special “units” are identified in the text. Then the frequency of their use is calculated. It makes sense to use this method only in cases where the researcher is dealing with a large amount of information and analyzes numerous texts. In practice, content analysis in psychology is used in research in the field of mass communications.

Experiment(from lat. experimentum– trial, experience) – This is the active intervention of a researcher in the life activity of a subject in order to create conditions under which any psychological pattern is discovered.. In psychology, there are two main types of experiments:

· laboratory experiment carried out in specially equipped premises, which ensures particularly strict control of independent and dependent variables;

· natural experiment – in this case the subject doesn't know, doesn't guess that he is participating in the study (the subject is performing his usual activity, and the experimenter is a familiar person to him).

For both types, there are some general rules: the experimenter systematically manipulates one or more independent variables(this is the reason) and registers accompanying changes in the behavior of the object being studied, i.e. monitors changes dependent variables(this is a consequence). Organization of an experiment requires compliance with a number of conditions:

1. An experiment, like all research methods, requires preliminary setting of a goal and selection of an object.

2. It is necessary to carefully develop a methodology for conducting an experiment and prepare material for research. The material must be manufactured in strict accordance with the recommendations contained in the methodology.

3. The conditions in which the research will be conducted should be prepared in advance.

4. It is necessary to compile and memorize the instructions and description of the experiment procedure in advance. Moreover, it must be remembered that the instructions must be understandable to the subjects.

5. Before conducting an experiment, it is necessary to select a subject and establish friendly, trusting relationships with him. The researcher must win over the subject, which is accompanied by a relaxed, calm conversation, a smile, and approving gestures. You cannot emphasize the unusualness or exclusivity of the situation or take the position of an inspector. It is advisable to give the experimental procedure the character of ordinary friendly communication. Method materials cannot be used to establish contact.

6. It is necessary to react with restraint and evenness to the successes and failures of the subject during the experiment, unless otherwise provided by the research methodology.

7. The pace of the study must correspond to the individual psychological characteristics of the subject.

8. An experiment conducted with a child should not be very long. As a rule, it is limited to 15 - 20 minutes, unless another time is provided for by the research methodology. Moreover, the younger the child, the shorter the study should be.

9. An experiment always involves a standard procedure, so you cannot make any changes to it, for example, changing the instructions. It is necessary to ensure that the subject understands and accepts the instructions. It can be repeated 2-3 times without changes, but it cannot be explained if this is not provided for by the research methodology. All subjects must be presented with tasks in a strictly uniform manner, with the same intonation and voice strength, without emphasizing any words, except in specially specified cases.

10. The experiment is usually carried out by an experimenter and a protocolist. It is important that the latter is out of the field of view of the subject, but can see and hear him well. In the protocol, he records the behavior, speech and emotional reactions of the subject in accordance with the criteria provided for by the research methodology. We especially emphasize that children’s speech is recorded preserving all its features, without correcting grammatical and other errors. The functions of the protocolist, therefore, are to accurately record psychological facts, the functions of the experimenter are to conduct research.

The experiment has a number of advantages:

· active position of the researcher (he does not wait for the subject to experience the mental phenomenon that he is studying. He himself causes it by creating appropriate conditions);

· the experiment can be repeated, i.e. once again evoke the mental phenomenon being studied, which means checking and clarifying the initially obtained data;

· the experiment allows you to quickly collect a large amount of factual material;

· experiment is a more objective method than observation, since its methodology contains clear criteria for recording and processing data;

· the method of recording data has been significantly simplified, since the phenomenon being studied is separated from a number of life circumstances;

· analysis of the experimental protocol is constructed in accordance with the given sequence of methods. The analysis of the obtained facts can be expressed in numerical terms and subjected to quantitative processing.

TO shortcomings experiments include the following:

· The experiment requires long and careful preparation. The reliability of the data obtained depends on the experimenter’s ability to set a goal, select material, accurately use instructions, monitor the time and sequence of task completion, the peculiarities of the subject’s reaction, as well as the ability to get into contact with him, and knowledge of methods for statistical processing of the obtained facts;

· the researcher is involved in communication with the subject and can unwittingly influence his behavior. The mental model can influence the facts obtained;

· a holistic picture of the subject’s psyche is not created;

· when conducting a laboratory experiment, the naturalness in the mental manifestations of the subject may disappear.

Formative experiment – a method of tracking changes in the human psyche during the active influence of the researcher on the subject. Having studied the mechanisms, we are able to simulate the phenomenon and actively control it.

Stages of the formative experiment:

1) stating stage (control and experimental groups of subjects participate in it);

2) formative stage (only the experimental group of subjects participates);

3) control stage (control and experimental groups of subjects participate).

At the ascertaining and control stages, the same research methods are used, which makes it possible to compare the results of these stages with each other, on the basis of which to draw conclusions about changes in the characteristics under study as a result of formative influences.

– this is the most common group of methods used in teaching practice in all school subjects and at all levels of education.

The source of knowledge is considered to be the word, which can be oral or written.

It is this that stimulates the active cognitive activity of students, provides a higher culture of auditory perceptions and thinking, develops reading, oral and written speech, and also requires the skills of analysis and synthesis, concretization and opposition, the ability to reason and draw conclusions.

Verbal methods include story and explanation, conversation and discussion, lecture, and work with a book. These methods are widely used in the development of theoretical and practical knowledge in children; verbal exchange of information is supported between the teacher and students. However, familiarization with the material is carried out mainly in a ready-made form, and therefore little attention is paid to setting and solving problematic problems, performing creative tasks, and developing children’s cognitive independence and initiative.

Story and explanation

A story involves an oral narrative presentation of the content of educational material. This method is used at all stages of school education; only the nature of the narrative, its volume, and duration change. According to the goals, several types of stories are distinguished: an introduction story (preparing students to perceive new educational material, a presentation story (disclosing the content of a new topic), a conclusion story (conclusions and generalization of what has been learned).

During the story, such methodological techniques as activation of attention, associative and logical comparisons, comparisons, highlighting the main thing, and summarizing are used. At the same time, a number of pedagogical requirements are imposed on the story, in connection with which it must: contain exclusively accurate facts; include a sufficient number of clear and convincing examples and facts proving the correctness of the proposed provisions; have a clear logic of presentation; highlight the main provisions, ideas, and concentrate children’s attention on them; be emotional, expressive; be presented in clear and accessible language; lasts no more than 10 minutes, since children quickly get tired and their attention wanders. The presentation of the material can also be combined with reading fragments from a textbook or study guide, students writing down definitions and dates, and repeating the most important, current provisions and conclusions.

Explanation - verbal interpretation of patterns, significant qualities of the object being studied, disclosure of facts, derivation of laws and methods of action, presentation of experiments. Explanation is most often resorted to when studying theoretical material, solving problems and theorems, and uncovering circumstances and consequences in natural phenomena and social life. In this case, the teacher must comply with the following requirements: specifically formulate goals and objectives, clearly pose questions to be disclosed; present the material clearly and consistently; ensure children’s understanding of educational information, involve them in active observation of the phenomena being explained; establish connections with already studied material. Explanation can be combined with the use of visual aids, conducting experiments, and using ICT.

Conversation and discussion

Conversation is one of the more well-known methods of didactic work; its main function is stimulating, but at the same time it successfully performs other functions. The essence of the conversation is to, with the help of targeted and skillfully posed questions, encourage students to update the knowledge they have already acquired, to make independent judgments and generalizations. The conversation forces the student to follow in the footsteps of the teacher’s idea, as a result of which he moves step by step in mastering new knowledge. This method activates thinking, is an effective means of diagnosing acquired knowledge and skills, promotes the development of cognitive abilities of students, and its educational role is also great.

According to their purpose and structure, conversations can be introductory (organizing), heuristic, systematizing (consolidating), control and correction. To effectively conduct a conversation, professional training of the teacher is necessary, since he must correctly formulate the topic and ask questions that are naturally related to each other and correspond to the age development of students. The question is asked to the whole class and only after a short pause for reflection is a student called in to answer. Correct answers are approved, incorrect or incomplete answers are commented on and clarified. If no one can answer, it is necessary to reformulate, split into parts, and pose a leading question. An important condition for a full conversation is clear discipline in the lesson and the establishment of close contact between the teacher and students, which allows you to work in an atmosphere of understanding, goodwill, and openness. It should be noted that conversation is a very labor-intensive method of teaching, as it requires a lot of time, effort, and professional skill.

Discussion as a teaching method has the goal of stimulating cognitive interest, drawing students into an intensive discussion of various scientific points of view on a particular issue, encouraging them to comprehend information and argue their own position. But for this it is necessary to have at least two different views on the issue under discussion. Without existing knowledge, discussion becomes pointless, meaningless and inaccurate, and without the ability to express an idea, it becomes confusing and contradictory. In addition, there are special rules for discussion, including: limited speaking time for each student, discipline and mutual respect, restraint, dignified acceptance of someone else’s position, etc.

Lecture

A lecture differs from other verbal methods:

  1. more rigid structure;
  2. logic of presentation of educational material;
  3. abundance of information provided;
  4. the systematic nature of the lighting of the material.

The subject of a school lecture is considered to be preferably a description of complex systems, phenomena, objects, processes, and the cause-and-effect relationships between them. It follows from this that the lecture is applicable exclusively in high school, when students have already achieved the level of preparation required to perceive and comprehend the lecture material. The duration of the lecture takes a whole lesson or even two.

The pedagogical requirements for the lecture are as follows: creation by the teacher of a detailed draft of the lecture; familiarizing students with the topic, purpose and objectives of the lecture; logically consistent presentation of all points of the plan; short summary conclusions after covering each point; natural relationships when moving from one part of the lecture to another; problematic and emotional presentation; timely inclusion of examples, comparisons, facts; contact with the audience; an appropriate pace of presentation that allows students to write down the main points.

Working with a book

Working with a textbook and book has become one of the main teaching methods. The textbook presents the material accurately and in a systematic manner. The student has the opportunity to repeatedly process educational information at a pace accessible to him and at a convenient time. Educational books successfully perform teaching, developing, educating, stimulating, control and correction functions.

The purpose of independent work with a book can be to become familiar with its structure, skim through it, read individual chapters, search for answers to specific questions, study the material, summarize individual passages, solve examples and problems, and memorize the material. Teaching children to work with the words of textbooks and books, developing their need for reading is the most important task of the teacher.

As a rule, two types of work with a book are used: in a lesson under the guidance of a teacher and independent work at home. The following techniques are used: note-taking, creating a plan, thesis, quoting, reviewing, creating a reference, a thematic thesaurus. The teacher must constantly exercise children in reading, teach them to analyze what they read, find answers to questions, work with diagrams and tables, use reference books, dictionaries, and encyclopedias.

Characteristics of teaching methods

Teaching methods are the most important tool in the hands of a teacher to guide the process of teaching natural history. Consequently, there is a need to reveal their essence and pedagogical effectiveness. Let us dwell briefly on the characteristics of groups and types of teaching methods used in teaching natural science in elementary school.

Verbal methods. In the process of teaching natural science, an important source of knowledge is the spoken or printed word. It is often illustrated with various visual aids. The activity of the teacher here is that he conveys himself or organizes the transmission of information in words. The student's activity consists of listening to the word.

The word is the oldest, and once the only way to influence students. But, starting from the time of A. Ya. Komensky, the role of the word in the educational process was gradually limited, which is very important for natural science subjects. In fact, verbal and book teaching alone cannot give correct, complete ideas about natural objects and phenomena, without which the process of conscious assimilation of theory is impossible. This approach to teaching practically does not allow students to achieve their development goals, but the role of nature in this development is invaluable. And yet the learning process does not proceed without the use of verbal methods. The living and printed word continue to be important ways of influencing students.



Lecture It is not used in the process of teaching primary natural history, so we will not dwell on its characteristics.

Story - This is a consistent descriptive presentation of educational material. The story is used in cases where it is necessary to convey new information that is not based either on the students’ life experience, or on previously studied, or on observations. Thus, the teacher uses the story method to communicate the reasons for the differences between indoor plants and wild ones in our conditions; differences in nature in remote geographical areas. This method is used when there is a need to create an image through verbal description and convey to the class the content of personal observations and experiences.

the story must meet certain requirements. First of all, it should not be long. According to our observations, a story in natural history lessons should not exceed 5-7 minutes by the end of primary school. This length of the story should increase gradually, starting from one minute in grades I-II. It is also very important that the teacher’s speech is clear, accessible, lively, and imaginative. Imagery is especially necessary when using a story as verbal clarity. In a story, the teacher must carefully monitor the use of scientific terminology, avoid everydayisms, a variety of facts and terms, and, if necessary, use visual aids. In his story, the teacher can include stories from students, small excerpts from popular science and non-fiction literature, and be sure to establish connections with what has been studied.

The positive aspects of the story are that the student receives a fairly large amount of information in a short period of time and assimilates the educational material more or less holistically. This method develops memory, as well as such an important personality quality as the ability to listen to a story or lecture. At the same time, this is a method of formal transmission of information that students must accept in finished form, on faith. It poorly develops children's creative thinking.

Conversation - a teaching method with which the teacher, by purposefully asking questions, mobilizes the knowledge and practical experience of students, leading them to new knowledge.

The main structural component of a conversation is a question. Questions should be based on students’ existing knowledge and experience and help children discover new knowledge. You should include different types of questions in your conversation. First of all, questions that require the reproduction of factual information from observations, life experience,


from what was previously studied, etc. Such knowledge consists mainly of ideas or initial concepts. Therefore, most often questions are used here with the words: “Who is this?”, “What is this?”, “Which one?”, “What does it do?” etc. Another group of questions should direct children’s activities to comprehend (analysis and synthesis) factual information. Questions and tasks for comparison, classification, clarification of causes and relationships, and generalization are appropriate here. The third group of questions forces students to practice knowledge. A variety of training exercises are appropriate here. The main part of the tasks in the workbooks is also aimed at practicing knowledge. At the end of the conversation, a conclusion is drawn, which will constitute new knowledge.

The conversation can be built inductively and deductively. According to the laws of induction, it is built by studying several similar objects, when in conclusion a general conclusion is drawn. The same type of conversation is used at the beginning of studying a topic. Concluding conversations on a topic or lesson are most often constructed deductively. In this version, the source material is a general position that is familiar to students. They first formulate this position, then confirm and develop the latter with additional facts. At the conclusion of any conversation, a conclusion is drawn, which in an inductive conversation will constitute new knowledge, and in a deductive conversation, updated knowledge.

The value of this method is that the teacher has the opportunity to receive feedback on the cognitive and developmental level of a large group of students in a relatively short time; the conversation activates the students’ activities, develops communication skills, self-control and self-esteem skills by comparing the levels of knowledge of their own and their classmates. However, this method fragments students' knowledge, makes it difficult to generalize it and the ability to holistically perceive educational material, and does not teach students to convey scientific knowledge in a coherent form.

Explanation- consistent presentation of educational material, having the nature of evidence, reasoning with the formulation of a conclusion. A type of explanation is instruction in carrying out observations, experiments, practical work, and various types of independent work, including with a notebook, textbook, and visual aids. Instructions may be given in writing or orally. Examples of written instructions include assignments in the textbook for practical and laboratory work, instruction cards, and assignments on the board.

The explanation method has its advantages, because it contributes to the formation of educational skills, practical skills, and develops thinking and attention. At the same time, he requires


the student experiences great tension of attention and thought, since in him each subsequent position follows from the previous one and is connected with it. Therefore, even a small omission of an explanation deprives the student of perceiving it as a whole, and therefore of doing the work consistently and efficiently.

Visual methods. The use of visual methods in teaching is closely related to the implementation of the principle of visibility. However, these concepts are not identical. Visualization as a teaching principle is implemented using any methods. The function of the method of visualization is fulfilled when it becomes the main source of knowledge, methods of practical action, and developing and educating influence on the student. The student, working with visualization, independently analyzes it, reasons and comes to some of his own conclusions; we will prove this difference with an example.

Visual aids are widely used in verbal methods. The teacher talks or conducts a conversation about any plants, animals, processes occurring in nature, etc., and for greater specificity, he reinforces the word by demonstrating visual aids. Here, visual aids are not the main source of information, material for independent conclusions, but only reinforce and specify the word, which remains the main way of pedagogical influence on the student. In this case, the independent cognitive activity of students is limited.

Visual aids in visual methods are a source of independent reasoning, generalizations, and conclusions. This problem is solved in stages:

The presence of the object of study itself in nature or in the image;

Determining the type of activity of the child with a given object through a system of targeted tasks that can be given orally, written on the board or cards, indicated in the textbook, etc. Questions and tasks should be formulated in such a way and offered to the class in a sequence that will ensure as much as possible a more detailed, comprehensive and consistent study of the demonstrated objects or phenomena;

The presence of a certain duration of the stage of independent research and their presentation in the form of conclusions;

Discussion of particular conclusions and formulation of a generalized result. At this stage, it is useful to refer to the manuals you have already studied to clarify some details.

Thus, the word in visual methods plays a different role than in verbal ones: here, with the help of the word, the teacher directs the action.


students’ ability to analyze visual aids, and the word acts as a form of expression of conclusions, generalizations, i.e., information obtained through the use of visual methods.

The use of visual methods has its positive and negative sides. It is valuable that the use of these methods sufficiently increases the activity of students and their independent cognitive activity. Visualization makes it possible to eliminate verbalism in the teaching of natural history and creates good conditions for the practice of knowledge. The developmental impact of visual methods on the student is also great: they develop empirical thinking, without which the development of theoretical thinking is impossible, improve speech, observation, self-esteem and self-control skills, creative imagination, academic work skills, etc.

The difficulties of using visual methods are associated, first of all, with the availability of the objects for study and auxiliary equipment. Providing the educational process with natural visual aids is difficult due to the presence of serious environmental problems. The production of visual aids requires additional material costs. Schools often use homemade visual aids, but they, as a rule, do not comply with GOST standards, they are difficult to unify, but this does not mean they are rejected. In addition, the use of homemade visual aids requires the teacher and students to have certain skills and experience and adherence to safety rules. The results of the educational process are achieved in a longer time than when using verbal methods. Children experience certain difficulties in verbal expressions.

Visual methods can be used both when learning new material and when consolidating it. When learning new material, they are a way to form new knowledge, and when consolidating it, they are a way to practice knowledge.

Exploring nature with demonstrations of natural objects allows you to form fairly complete and reliable ideas about the object being studied, facilitates the formation of ideas about objects and natural phenomena that, for various reasons, cannot be studied in nature itself, creates opportunities for direct contacts of the child with living nature. An important condition for the success of this method is to ensure the perception of an object or phenomenon by all students and as many senses as possible. To achieve this goal, objects are placed on special stands, a special background and lighting are created, and auxiliary equipment is used, such as projection equipment. Small objects can be displayed


carry it around the class. Moving objects, such as small and medium-sized animals, are placed in cages and transparent containers (glass or plastic jars, test tubes, aquariums, terrariums).

It is useful to combine the study of natural visual aids with visual clarity, with work based on the text of the textbook. The first of these conditions allows the child to see a given object in relationship with its environment, obtain additional information about habits, ways of manifesting some life processes, etc. The second is to find the necessary terms, compose formulations, etc. For example, in a lesson on the topic “Plants and Animals of the Field”, with the help of a herbarium, children study the morphological features of weeds. And the table “Field” and the corresponding figure in the textbook make it possible to understand the negative impact of weeds on cultivated plants: weeds grow among cultivated plants, shade the latter, take part (often significant) of water and mineral nutrients from the soil, and therefore reduce the yield of the main crop.

Application of the method image demonstrations natural objects and phenomena is of great importance in the study of natural history. It also allows you to form children's ideas about objects and natural phenomena. This is especially important in cases where a natural object cannot be presented to children in real life due to its size, environmental considerations, or other reasons. The value of this method also lies in the fact that it makes it possible to study natural objects in their environment, in relationships with this environment.

Using visual aids, you can study processes occurring in nature. At the same time, the use of this method does not always allow one to form accurate, correct ideas about the objects and phenomena being studied. Some details are often missed in the images, for example, in the diagram of the development of a plant from a seed, significant periods of the natural course of plant development are missed. In some cases, it is impossible to convey the exact dimensions of objects, for example, to depict large animals in their natural size; depict the entire object, for example, natural areas, natural landscapes, etc. Therefore, in visual visual aids it is necessary to use additional techniques in order to achieve the greatest possible degree of formation of accurate, complete knowledge. Thus, the idea of ​​the natural size of objects depicted in some visual aid can be strengthened by comparing it with objects familiar to children. Knowledge about natural areas, landscapes, etc. can be developed by combining several visual aids.


For example, in order to form a more or less holistic idea of ​​the features of the nature of the tundra, children are given a landscape image of the tundra, which allows them to form a general idea of ​​it, and for specification, images of individual objects of the tundra: plants, animals, life and work of people, etc. Useful combine static and dynamic visual aids, demonstrations of visual aids with drawings on the board and in notebooks, with short notes.

As in the case of studying nature using natural visual aids, when demonstrating visual visual aids, it is important to ensure that they are perceived by all students in the class and by as many senses as possible. Obviously, the largest role in this method belongs to vision, but it is also possible to involve hearing, for example, when demonstrating sound recordings, films and videos. In the application of this method, auxiliary means also play a significant role: stands, fixtures, additional lighting, technical training aids, etc.

Method of studying nature using demonstrations of experiments is used in cases where an object or phenomenon needs to be studied under conditions that are artificially changed or some artificial element is introduced into them.

This method is of great importance in teaching primary natural science, as it clearly allows you to study an object or phenomenon, which is difficult or even impossible under natural conditions. For example, under natural conditions it is difficult to observe the entire process of the water cycle. Experience allows you to see it in a fairly short period of time. Another example. In nature, plant propagation by roots (root shoots) is quite common. It is almost impossible to see this process in natural conditions. The latter is successfully solved in a specially designed experiment. The best material for successfully performing this experiment are raspberry root cuttings. Demonstration of experiments has a positive effect on the development of research skills. At the same time, experience requires more preparatory work from the teacher than when using verbal methods, knowledge and ability to comply with safe work rules.

Experiments can be short-term, carried out in one lesson, but they can also be long-term. In the above examples of experiments, one of them is short-term, the other is long-term. In the first case, the conclusion, new knowledge is formed in the same lesson. In the second case, either the result of a pre-established experiment is demonstrated in the lesson, or the experience is only being laid in this lesson. This means that in long-term experiments the conclusion, new knowledge is formed


after a certain period of time. Sometimes, in order to obtain more complete, reliable information, the experiment is carried out in several versions. For example, to make sure that to propagate potatoes it is necessary to take parts of a tuber with eyes, you need to plant parts of a tuber with and without eyes. Moreover, parts of the tuber can be in one version with several eyes, in another - with one.

As with the two previous visual methods, the successful use of the method of demonstrating experiments will be facilitated by a clear definition of the content and system of the child’s activity at all stages: the presence of an object for study (in this case, the presence of a setup for experiment), tasks for study, independent work and the discussion stage conclusions. It is useful to combine experiments with graphic work on the board or in notebooks. Sometimes, in order to clarify some details and more fully understand the essence of a phenomenon, repetitions of the experience as a whole or its individual fragments are possible.

So, in all visual methods, visualization acts as an independent source of knowledge. These methods are widely combined with verbal teaching methods, but the word here plays a supporting role.

Practical methods. In the history of the formation and development of primary natural science, these methods were developed and began to be used later than verbal and visual ones. The use of visual methods in teaching was a step forward compared to purely verbal ones. But ongoing research has increasingly convinced that when visual methods are used, the child remains largely a passive contemplator, while he is characterized by active activity. Therefore, methods are needed that would turn students into activists, researchers, creators, and workers. This is how practical methods emerged. When using them, objects, phenomena, and instruments are transferred into the hands of the students themselves for their independent research.

Practical teaching methods are of great importance in the educational process, since they make it possible to implement to the greatest extent the important principles of didactics - an activity-based approach and the humanization of the learning process. The child turns from an object of learning into a subject of his own activity, which is most consistent with his nature. In addition, it is the child’s subjective position that is a characteristic feature of developmental education. Practical methods develop interest in learning, form the creative abilities of children, activate the theoretical and practical cognitive activity of students,


developing their thinking, practical skills, and educational skills. The role of practical methods is great in ensuring the first - empirical and third - practice of knowledge at the stage of formation and development of natural history concepts.

However, a number of issues make it difficult to use these methods. They require not one or two visual aids, but entire sets of handouts. Often, working with the latter is accompanied by the use of auxiliary equipment, which also must be available in accordance with the number of dispensing kits. Special devices are required to store all this material. The use of practical methods requires the teacher to organize the lesson in a special way, since guiding students’ independent practical work is quite difficult. The process of obtaining final learning results takes longer than when using verbal and visual methods.

In teaching practice, practical methods are implemented in stages.

1. Students receive a subject to study. Unlike visual methods, the subject to be studied is transferred directly to the student. Different students may have different, although similar, subjects.

2. Tasks that determine the type of activity of students with the received objects. Unlike visual methods, where all students receive the same tasks, in practical methods a certain individualization of tasks, and therefore the activities of children, is possible. The latter, to a certain extent, can be determined by children themselves through independently drawing up an activity plan.

3. Independent research work. Here it is more varied, complex and lengthy than when using the first two groups of methods.

4. Discussion of conclusions. With practical methods, compared to visual ones, children’s points of view are often more diverse, even contradictory, so discussions are frequent. Consequently, here the discussion is more active and often requires additional study of objects. The latter necessitates a return to the stage of independent research.

5. Formulation of conclusions.

Forms of organizing student activities in which practical methods are most often used are excursions, subject lessons, and within the lesson, individual practical and laboratory work, games. In particular, games can be frontal, group and individual. Among practical methods, their characteristic types are distinguished.

At Aquilev's. Methodology


Method, recognition And identifying signs. The action of this method is based on the analysis of external morphological and partially anatomical features of objects and phenomena. The method is used when working with handouts, when there is a need to create a description of objects, phenomena, highlight their characteristics, determine the place of a given object, phenomenon in a system of similar ones. The use of the method of recognition and identification of signs is usually combined with the use of instruction. The instructions may be written on the board, handed out on cards, or taken as instructions for a task from a textbook.

An example of the application of the method of recognition and determination of characteristics can be the study of the external structure of a plant during practical work. Specimens of plants with well-defined parts are distributed to students’ tables. In this case, different students or different groups of them may be offered different plants to study.

Another example. When developing the ability to read a map, practical work is organized. Here, the method of recognizing and identifying features allows you to develop the ability to recognize geographical objects using conventional signs, and gain knowledge about the distribution of these objects on Earth. This method is used to study the structure of a thermometer, the properties of water, soil, minerals, etc. This method is widely used on excursions and in the process of making independent observations.

The most widely used practical method in the process of studying natural history is the method observations. Considering the special importance of this method at the initial stage of natural science education, we include its characteristics in a separate paragraph (see pp. 135-140).

Experiment, or experience, As a teaching method, it is used in cases where it is not possible to study an object or phenomenon under normal conditions, but the artificial creation of special conditions is required. The experiment is also used when some artificial element is introduced into the natural process. For example, no matter how much we examine the soil, we will not find air in it. To detect the latter in the soil, it must be immersed in water. The water will displace the air in the soil, which will bubble through the water. This way, students are convinced that there is air in the soil.

Another example. To make sure that plants can propagate by cuttings, it is not necessary to conduct long-term observations in nature and wait for this to happen in it. You can specifically


separate a cutting from a plant and plant it for rooting in a specially created environment. I. P. Pavlov wrote that observation collects what nature offers, and experiment allows us to take what we want. This method is implemented in experiments. It requires special equipment. In its content, an experiment is richer than observation; it provides more convincing data to identify the essence of a phenomenon, cause-and-effect relationships, and, consequently, to clarify natural scientific laws.

The experiment can be short-term or long-term. A long-term experiment goes beyond the scope of the lesson and is completed or, conversely, started outside of class time. Short-term experiences are completed in a short period of time and usually do not extend beyond the scope of the lesson. The first of the above experiments is short-term, the second is long-term. Other short-term experiments include experiments to study some properties of water (transparency, fluidity, the ability of water to dissolve certain substances, etc.), soil (the presence of water, mineral salts in the soil), changes in the height of the liquid column in a thermometer when the ambient temperature changes, and etc. Examples of other long-term experiments are the study of the conditions of water freezing, its evaporation, the development of a plant from a seed, etc. These experiments can be introduced in the lesson, then their result is demonstrated after some time, which requires a preliminary repetition of the material already covered. The experiment can be planned in advance in such a way that its result coincides with the moment of studying the relevant material. In this case, children perform the experiment “blindly”. His realization comes later.

A special place is occupied by experiments conducted at the training and experimental site. They are usually long-lasting and often occupy the entire growing season. In such experiments there must be control and experience. A plant or animal is placed in them under the same conditions except for one, the test subject. For example, in an experiment it is necessary to study the effect of seed placement depth on the emergence of plant seedlings. To conduct this experiment, two plots of equal size, soil fertility, and illumination are allocated. The seeds of one plant, for example, beans, are taken and sown on both plots at the same time. In the future, the plants are equally cared for. The difference lies in only one thing: on the control plot, bean seeds are planted at a normal depth, and on the experimental plot, either shallower or deeper, depending on what specific goal is set in the experiment.

During any experiment, it is very important to make careful observations, perform the necessary measurements, calculations, and it is useful to keep


9*


corresponding entries in special notebooks separately for control and experience, placing them in parallel columns of a single table. This makes it easier to compare results and generalize them. Let us give examples of other similar experiments. In connection with the study of material about the development of a plant from a seed, it is possible to conduct an experiment to study the influence of the density of sowing seeds on the appearance of plants or on their yield. On the topic “Plants and Animals of the Garden,” you can conduct an experiment to study the effect of pinching the tips of raspberry shoots in the first year of life on the berry yield. The result of this experiment will be obtained only next year. An interesting and quite accessible experiment for children is to study the effect of joint planting of potatoes and legumes (beans, beans) on the spread of the Colorado potato beetle.

As we can see, the experimental method is based on students conducting research work, which is similar to the research work of a scientist. This similarity lies in the general direction of the logical process. Both the scientist and the student observe objects and phenomena in natural, modified conditions, compare data with each other, give an explanation of what is happening, and draw general conclusions. These conclusions in both cases are discoveries. Only the discoveries of scientists are truly discoveries that enrich science. Students' discoveries are discoveries for themselves. As a rule, in science these discoveries have already been made. It is also clear that the child’s research process, in comparison with scientific research, is shortened and simplified; many details, intermediate searches, and erroneous trials are omitted from it. And finally, a scientist most often carries out his research independently, sets his own goals, and develops a methodology. The student does this work much less independently. His research is guided by a teacher, focusing on educational goals.

Experimentation as a teaching method is of great importance in the educational process. Along with other practical methods, it provides an empirical level of cognition, but, unlike other methods, it causes more active mental activity. It develops students' research skills, their creativity, independence, self-control, determination, etc. The negative aspects of this method are that its implementation often involves the use of additional equipment, compliance with certain norms and rules, the process of obtaining new knowledge is slowed down to a much greater extent than with other methods.

In the educational process in natural science subjects, the method is widely used modeling. Its name comes from


the word “model”, the definition of which is ambiguous. Thus, cyberneticist N. M. Amosov defines a model as a system in which the relationships between elements reflect another system. Philosopher V. A. Shtoff understands a model as a mentally imagined or materially realized system that, by displaying or reproducing an object of study, is capable of replacing it in such a way that its study gives us new information about this object.

Models can be material (material) and ideal (speculative, mentally constructed). Material models include a globe, a model of a thermometer, a flower, a heart, etc. Among the ideal models, figurative and symbolic models are distinguished. These models are created mentally based on an analysis of reality. In order to preserve them and make them available to others, they are transferred to paper, a board, a computer, etc. in the form of signs, drawings, diagrams, tables, diagrams, etc. An example of iconic models are symbols for indicating weather, environmental signs, conventional signs of the plan and map, etc. Figurative models are built from sensory-visual elements. These are, for example, diagrams of the water cycle in nature, the development of a plant from a seed, chains of connections between individual components of nature, various kinds of instructional drawings (rules for caring for indoor plants, making a filter, etc.).

However, one should not confuse a model as a visual aid and modeling as a teaching method. If a ready-made model, a pre-drawn diagram is brought to the lesson, then here we are dealing with the model as a visual aid. Modeling performs the function of a method when a child, based on an image created in his head, creates a model himself and in the process of activity receives information about the modeled object or phenomenon. Thus, in the practice of teaching primary science, children can model during practical work using sand, clay, plasticine and other materials using paints of surface shapes, various types of reservoirs, fragments of communities; In notebooks, students themselves create (draw) models of the directions of the sides of the horizon, models of terrain or paths of movement in the form of a plan, a diagram of the development of a plant from a seed, the water cycle in nature, the formation of a spring, etc.

What is the importance of modeling in the educational process? Why, instead of the object or phenomenon itself, should we take its model? Some of the objects being studied, and even more so natural phenomena, cannot be brought into the classroom for study. This is easy to verify if you analyze the models listed above. A model gives a more complete picture of an object or phenomenon than a table. In the very


In fact, the table gives a planar image, while most models give a three-dimensional image. When modeling, an object is created in which the studied aspects of the original can be studied much more easily than with direct observation. Modeling shortens the process of studying some long-term processes. Thus, it is not at all necessary to observe the entire process of development of a plant from a seed, which can last throughout the entire growing season. It is enough to select its individual stages and, having created a model diagram, obtain the corresponding knowledge. The same can be said about the water cycle in nature. The next significant positive side of modeling is that this method, like other practical methods, excludes the formal transfer of knowledge to students; the study of an object or phenomenon occurs during the active practical and mental activity of the child. After all, every model represents a unity of the sensual, visual and logical, concrete and abstract. It is obvious that the use of the modeling method develops the child’s thinking and creativity. It is also important that during the cognitive process, different analyzers work with the help of modeling, which contributes to the development of the sensory sphere of children.

At the same time, models are built on the principle of effective simplifications. At the same time, the model reflects the object or phenomenon in a generalized form, omitting some details and details and, on the contrary, enhancing the essential aspects. Therefore, they may have some differences from the original. Thus, the student does not seem to receive any additional information. However, most often this information does not have a significant negative impact on knowledge about a given object or phenomenon. For example, knowledge that the development of a plant from seed to seed is a sequential process will not be of less quality if the student traces the individual stages and does not record the appearance of, for example, each new leaf. But this is the great value of the model, since it allows one to provide knowledge by excluding numerous elements that are similar to each other. Disadvantages include the need to have materials, certain equipment, and to know and follow hygiene rules. Younger schoolchildren still have weak practical skills, which can affect the quality of the created model and its aesthetics.

Combination of teaching methods. In teaching practice, different methods are rarely used in their pure form. As a rule, they are used in various combinations. It is difficult to imagine the use of visual and practical methods without words. On the other side,


Purely verbal teaching can form predominantly formal knowledge and modeled actions, which negatively affects the development of the child’s personality. Another important point about the need to combine methods is that they are able to neutralize the negative aspects of each other and enhance the positive ones. In fact, the weak clarity of verbal methods is compensated by the use of visual and practical methods. The slow process of acquiring knowledge, which takes place when using visual and, especially, practical methods, can be accelerated by verbal methods.

In domestic psychology, there are 4 groups of methods:

I. Organizational methods:

1. Comparative method–It consists of considering individual mechanisms of behavior and psychological acts in the process of development and in comparison with similar phenomena in other organisms. This method, called “comparative genetic,” is most widespread in zoopsychology and child psychology. (comparison of different groups by age, activity, etc.)

2. Longitudinal method– These are repeated examinations of the same individuals over a long period of time. The purpose of longitudinal studies is to record the somatic and mental development of the individual

3. Complex method– representatives of other sciences participate in the research, while one object is studied by different means. This makes it possible to establish connections and dependencies between phenomena of various kinds, for example, physiological, mental and social development of the individual,

4. Cross section method(or cross-sectional study) of mental development - comparison of different groups of people by age, education, activity and communication. It consists in the fact that conclusions about developmental characteristics are made on the basis of studies of the same characteristics in compared groups of people of different ages, different levels of development, with different personality traits.

II. Empirical methods:

1. Observation - a method consisting of deliberate, systematic, purposeful and recorded perception of external manifestations of the psyche.

Types of observation:

Slice (short-term observation),

Longitudinal (long, sometimes over a number of years),

Selective and

Solid

And a special type is participant observation (when the observer becomes a member of the study group).

The general observation procedure consists of the following processes:

1) definition of the task and goal;

2) choice of object, subject and situation;

3) choosing an observation method that has the least impact on the object under study and most ensures the collection of the necessary information;

4) choosing a method for recording what is observed (how to keep records):

5) processing and interpretation of the information received. Observation is used primarily when minimal interference in natural behavior and relationships between people is required, when they strive to get a holistic picture of what is happening

Self-observation (introspection)- observation of a person’s own mental phenomena. Two types: immediate or delayed (in memoirs, diaries, a person analyzes what he thought).

Scientific observation, although it comes into contact with everyday observation, differs from it in its clear goal setting. The main requirement is the presence of a clear target setting. In accordance with the purpose, an observation plan must be determined, recorded in the diagram. Planned and systematic observation constitutes its most essential feature as a scientific method. Any observation is selective, partial. The main advantage of the objective observation method is that it allows the study of mental processes in natural conditions. However, objective observation, while retaining its importance, for the most part must be supplemented by other research methods. The following requirements apply to the observation procedure:

2. Experiment (laboratory, natural, formative)

An experiment (the main method) differs from observation by active intervention in the situation on the part of the researcher, who systematically manipulates certain factors and registers corresponding changes in the state and behavior of the person being studied.

This is a research activity to study cause-and-effect relationships, which involves the following:

The researcher himself causes the phenomenon he is studying and actively influences it;

The experimenter can vary, change the conditions under which the phenomenon occurs;

In the experiment, it is possible to repeatedly reproduce the results:

As a result, the experiment establishes quantitative laws that can be formulated mathematically.

The main task of a psychological experiment is to make the essential features of the internal psychological process acceptable for objective external observation.

A laboratory experiment is carried out under artificial conditions, usually using special equipment, with strict control of all influencing factors. The subject knows that an experiment is being conducted, although he may not fully know the true meaning of the experiment. The experiment is carried out repeatedly with a large number of subjects, which makes it possible to establish general mathematical and statistical reliable patterns of development of mental phenomena

A natural experiment is a psychological experiment included in an activity or communication unnoticed by the subject,

Formative (educational) experiment is a method of research and formation of a mental process, state or personality quality. Its originality lies in the fact that it simultaneously serves as both a means of research and a means of shaping the phenomenon being studied. A formative experiment is characterized by the active intervention of the researcher in the mental processes he is studying.

3. Psychodiagnostic methods(test and survey).

The goal of modern psychological diagnostics is to record and describe psychological differences both between people and between groups of people united by certain characteristics.

The number of diagnosed signs, depending on the objectives of the study, may include psychological differences in age, gender, education and culture, mental state, psychophysical characteristics, etc.

1) One of the types of psychodiagnostic method is psychological tests . The English word "test" means "trial" or "trial". Test - a short-term task, the same for all subjects, the results of which determine the presence and level of development of certain mental qualities of a person.

This is a short, standardized test that, as a rule, does not require complex technical devices and is amenable to standardization and mathematical processing of data. With the help of tests, they strive to identify certain abilities, skills, abilities (or lack thereof), and to most accurately characterize certain personality qualities.

Achievement tests are one of the psychodiagnostic methods that allows one to identify the test subject’s level of proficiency in specific knowledge, skills, and abilities.

Intelligence tests are a psychodiagnostic technique for identifying an individual’s mental potential.

Creativity tests are a set of methods for studying and assessing creative characteristics.

Personality tests are a psychodiagnostic technique for measuring various aspects of an individual’s personality.

Projective tests are a set of methods for a holistic study of personality, based on psychological interpretation, i.e. conscious or unconscious transfer by the subject of his own properties to external objects

2) Among the most common means of understanding psychological phenomena are all kinds of polls .

The purpose of the survey is to obtain information about objective and subjective facts from the words of the respondents.

Types of survey: 1) face-to-face survey - conversation, in tervy, anamnesis; 2) correspondence survey – questionnaires.

Anamnesis (lat. from memory) - information about the past of the person being studied, obtained from himself or - with an objective history - from people who know him well.

Conversation method- a method involving direct or indirect receipt of psychological information through verbal communication. It is an auxiliary tool for additional coverage of the problem being studied. The conversation should always be organized in a planned manner in accordance with the objectives of the study, but should not be of a template-standard nature.

Interview- a method of social psychology, which consists in collecting information received in the form of answers to posed, usually pre-formulated, questions. In a standardized interview, the wording of questions and their sequence are determined in advance and are the same for all respondents. Non-standardized technique interview , on the contrary, is characterized by complete flexibility and varies over a wide range. The researcher, who is guided only by the general interview plan, has the right to formulate questions and change the order of the plan items in accordance with the specific situation.

In the case where questions and answers are presented in writing, a survey takes place.

Questionnaire- a methodological tool for obtaining primary socio-psychological information based on verbal (verbal) communication, representing a questionnaire for obtaining answers to a pre-compiled system of questions. Questioning (correspondence survey) also has its own specifics. It is believed that it is more expedient to resort to correspondence surveys in cases where it is necessary to find out people’s attitudes to sensitive controversial or intimate issues, or to survey a large number of people in a relatively short period of time.

Method of studying the products of activity widely used in historical psychology and child psychology.

A variety of methods for studying the products of activity is biographical method. The material here is letters, diaries, biographies, creative products, handwriting, etc.

In many cases, psychological research uses not one, but several methods, each of which complements the others, revealing new aspects of mental activity.

III. Data processing methods: quantitative and qualitative methods - This is an analysis of the material - includes “quantitative (use of mathematical statistics, data processing on a computer) and qualitative (differentiation of material into groups, analysis) methods.

IV. Correction methods: auto-training, group training, psychotherapeutic influence, training.- Modern psychology influences the practical activities of people in various ways. Psychological assistance is most often and most effectively provided in situations of not only objectively existing, but also subjectively experienced trouble. This experience can be acute and be expressed in deep dissatisfaction with oneself, others, life in general, and sometimes in suffering. In such cases, it is necessary to provide not only advisory, but also psychotherapeutic assistance. And here it is necessary to talk about the corrective methods of work of a psychologist. Currently, psycho-correctional methods are a fairly extensive set of techniques, programs and methods of influencing people’s behavior, including auto-training and group training.

Origin and implementation of the method autogenic training associated with the name of the German psychotherapist I.G. Schultz. Thanks to his work in all countries, autogenic training has become widespread primarily as a method of treatment and prevention of various types of neuroses and functional disorders in the body. Subsequently, practical experience has shown that autogenic training is an effective means of mental hygiene and psychoprophylaxis, as well as managing the human condition in extreme conditions. Autogenic training uses three main ways to influence the state of the nervous system:

1) developing the ability to completely relax the muscles of the body;

2) using the active role of ideas, sensory images;

3) the regulating and programming role of the word, pronounced not only out loud, but also mentally.

The set of exercises that makes up the essence of autogenic training is a means that not only promotes the growth of a person’s reserve abilities, but also constantly improves the activity of the programming mechanisms of the brain.

Under group training usually understand unique forms of teaching knowledge and individual skills in the field of communication, as well as forms of their corresponding correction. As for the methods of socio-psychological training, there are many classifications, but, in essence, they all highlight two large, partially overlapping areas - group discussions and games. The group discussion method is used mainly in the form of case studies and in the form of group self-analysis. Among the gaming methods of socio-psychological training, the method of role-playing games has received the widest significance.

Currently, the practice of group training is a rapidly developing branch of applied psychology. Social and psychological training in our country is used to train specialists in various fields: managers, teachers, doctors, psychologists, etc. It is used to correct the dynamics of marital conflicts, improve relationships between parents and children, etc.

The concept of "method of psychological research" can also be used in the meaning a special technique for solving a specific psychological problem.

These specific techniques implement methodological principles that are common not only to this problem, but also to many other ways of knowing. However, the specificity of specific techniques is determined primarily by the nature of a particular problem that is solved with their help. The arsenal of specific psychological techniques used by modern psychology is extremely important.

The forms they take are also very diverse and are determined by the uniqueness of a particular area of ​​psychology.

At the same time, it is possible to identify some common features characteristic of most specific psychological techniques.

The research typically falls into four stages:

First - preparatory. During it, preliminary information about the object of research is collected and studied. Observation is used during classes and work, in everyday life, and during deliberately organized conversations. Questionnaires and anamnesis may be used, i.e. description of the conditions preceding the occurrence of the fact under study.

The second stage is the experiment itself. Implements a specific research methodology and, in turn, is divided into a number of sequential experimental series.

The third is quantitative processing of research data. It involves the use of various statistical techniques and the application of the basic principles of probability theory, which make it possible to judge the reliability of the findings that confirm the initially put forward hypothesis.

The fourth stage of the study - interpretation of the results obtained, their interpretation on the basis of psychological theory, final clarification of the correctness or error of the hypothesis.

Thus, the use of specific techniques includes many of the characteristic features of objective psychological research. Observation, analysis of the products of activity, conversations, clarification of anamnestic data, experiment, mathematical processing of its results, conclusions and their interpretation - all this is organically included in the course of the study.

The scientific solution of psychological problems presupposes the ability of the researcher, if necessary, to apply specific techniques.

Topic 2. THE EMERGENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE PSYCHE(2 hours)

1. The emergence of the psyche. Consciousness and unconsciousness. Forms of behavior.

2. Psyche and brain.

LITERATURE

1. Nemov R.S. Psychology. In 2 books. – M.: Vlados, 1994.

2. General psychology /ed. E.I. Rogova., -M., 2001

3. General psychology / ed. A.V. Petrovsky. – M., Education, 1976.

4. Bassin F.V. The problem of the unconscious. –M., 1968.

5. Wooldridge D. Mechanisms of the brain. - M., 1965.

6. Ladygina-Kots N.N. Development of the psyche in the process of evolution of organisms. – M., 1968.

7. Fabri K.E. Animal games and human games. – Questions of psychology – 1982 - No. 3 – P.26-34

End of work -

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. Observation method- this is the main method of modern psychology, the essence of which is that scientific facts are collected through not interference in the life of an object, but passive contemplation of this fact

Observations can be carried out both short-term and long-term. Therefore, these types of observations are the cross-sectional method (short-term) and longitudinal (long-term)

The researcher can play the role of a passive observer (detached observation), or can actively interact with the object of study while simultaneously observing him (participant observation)

Observation can be either selective or general, subject and object. For example, what is common to an object is that all members of the team are monitored. Selective by object - until observation, only individual members of the team are included. General on the subject - all manifestations of the psyche (character, temperament, will) are examined in the object of observation. Selective by subject - only one problem (thinking or memory) is studied for the entire array (in the Object).

The use of surveillance is subject to the following conditions:

1) determination - defining the goal, task of the study;

2) natural conditions - typical observation conditions (so that persons do not know that they are being monitored);

3) having a plan;

4) precise definition of the object and subject of observation;

5) limitation by the researcher of the signs that are the subject of observation;

6) development by the researcher of unambiguous criteria for assessing these characteristics;

7) ensuring clarity and duration of observation

. Figure 124. Advantages and disadvantages of the observation method

The observation method is used not only by scientists, but also by students, for example, when accumulating data for writing psychological characteristics of a person

. Experiment- the main method of psychology, which consists in the fact that facts are obtained by creating special conditions in which the object could most clearly manifest the subject being studied

There are experiments: laboratory and natural, ascertaining and molding

. Laboratory carried out in special psychological laboratories using appropriate equipment

. Natural experiment carried out under normal operating conditions for the subject under study. A natural experiment, just like a laboratory experiment, is carried out according to a specific program, but in such a way that the person does not know that it is being studied and solves the problem calmly, at her usual pace.

. Constitutive experiment aimed at fixing the existing psychological characteristics of a person, molding is focused on stimulating the desired mental manifestations

. Figure 125. Advantages and disadvantages of the experiment

Features of auxiliary methods of psychology

. Conversation-method of obtaining information based on verbal (verbal) communication, includes questions and answers

. The conversation can be diagnostic (detects), corrective (forms)

The conversation method can produce valuable results under the following conditions:

1) a clear definition by the researcher of the purpose of the conversation;

2) clear planning of the system of questions;

3) the system of questions must correspond to the age and individual characteristics of the subjects, be dynamic, i.e. contents of the following

the question should depend on the content of the answer to the previous one, etc.;

4) the conversation should be relaxed and friendly

. Questionnaire- a method of socio-psychological research using questionnaires, the content of questions and the method of answers in which are planned in advance

The reliability of questionnaire data is checked in two ways:

1) a repeated survey of the same persons using the same procedure;

2) control of questionnaire data by other methods:

Questioning third parties;

Observation;

Analysis of available documents

The questionnaire method can be used by correspondence, a relatively economical method of data collection. It allows you to analyze and process data using statistics. This method is used in mass surveys

. Interview- a method that is used to collect primary information in psychological, sociological and pedagogical research

. Sociometry (from Lat. societas - society metreo- I measure) - developed. J. Moreno

This method is used to derive or formulate a working hypothesis in the early stages of research; data collection, addition, clarification, expansion, control of data obtained by other methods. Interview as a method three types:

1) a standardized interview, in which the wording and sequence of questions are determined in advance;

2) a non-standard interview, in which the person conducting it is guided only by a general survey plan and formulates a question in accordance with a specific situation;

3) writing a standard interview containing a certain number of possible questions

. Test (from English test - test). Tests are tasks that are small in scope and time to complete, and are the same for all subjects.

The choice of types of interviews depends on the content of the study, the level of study of the problem, and the training of the researcher

. Testing is one of the auxiliary methods of psychology, the use of which can serve to identify:

1) the level of development of certain mental functions (observation, memory, thinking, imagination, attention, etc.);

2) the presence or absence of certain knowledge, abilities, skills, mental qualities, good breeding, etc.);

3) the degree of suitability or readiness of a growing individual or adult for a certain profession;

4) mental illness;

5) interests, opinions, abilities of a person

. Analysis of activity products- This is one of the auxiliary methods of psychology. This includes analysis of drawings, certain images

. Sociometric method studies the nature of relationships in a team through the selection procedure

Psychology also uses data processing methods - these are quantitative and qualitative methods. Quantitative methods include, for example, the determination of average values ​​and measures of dispersion, correlation coefficients, graphs, histograms, diagrams, tables, etc. The qualitative method involves the analysis and synthesis of the data obtained, their systematization and comparison with the results of other data.

There are many methods used in psychology. Scientists decide which one is rational to use in each specific case, depending on the tasks and object of study. In this case, as a rule, they use not just one method, but several, which complement and control each other.



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