The development of European culture from the Middle Ages to the Modern Age went through three important stages that had a huge impact on Europe - the Renaissance (XIV - XVI centuries); Reformation (XVI century); Enlightenment (XVII - XVIII centuries).
Humanism did not develop in Russia, although personalities of the Renaissance type arose (M.V. Lomonosov, Catherine II, A.S. Pushkin). However, they did not create an era: there was no common, holistic, integrative cultural style. In Russia there was a “pre-renaissance” without a Renaissance and the reasons for this were the “time of troubles”, the spiritual split of the church and society, the despotism of the state, the dominance of the bureaucracy. Humanism was not accepted by the Russian social and philosophical consciousness because it put nature instead of God, and instead of the God-man, the man-god. The Russian mentality did not accept life without God on earth, the primacy of matter over spirit.
The Reformation in Russia partly took place as a consequence of the church schism and the reforms of Peter I. It was secularization rather than a Reformation. The state took upon itself the functions of educating people. Power enforces morality and spirituality through the state, which has taken the place of God. The schism led to the final rupture of spiritual and temporal power and the rupture of the church and the people. The Church has lost its authority. The most moral part of society went into opposition to the authorities.
The Russian enlightenment took place, although it had its own specifics; in particular, the split between the authorities and the intelligentsia, which became an opponent of the autocracy instead of the church, was detrimental.
Until the 17th century, Russian culture was united. Its unity was ensured by faith. In the 17th century, the process of cultural demarcation began. Processes similar to the Renaissance appeared at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries.
century is a milestone for Russia, when medieval culture is replaced by the culture of the New Age. From the end of the XVII to the end of the XVIII
centuries, the Russian nation and national culture were formed in its main features. A secular, rationalistic culture begins to predominate, although the influence of religion was still great, contacts with other peoples are intensifying, and the country is joining the world cultural process. Historical and cultural development is accelerating, becoming more complex, differentiated, and new spheres of culture are emerging (science, fiction, secular painting). The democratization of culture is taking place: the circle of producers and consumers of cultural values is expanding. The mechanisms for the spread of culture are changing (secular schools, universities, literary language, book publishing, and so on), that is, the sign system of Ancient Rus' is changing.
An important place in the cultural history of Russia belongs to the era of Peter I. And although Peter’s reforms were not in the nature of radical socio-economic transformations, they were carried out by the forces of the absolutist state in the interests of the nobility and worsened the situation of the people, they intensified the cultural development of the country. With the liquidation of the patriarchate, the church lost its independence in the spiritual life of society, and its influence on social and cultural life decreased. The religious worldview has ceased to be the predominant form of expression of spiritual creativity.
The reforms of Peter I split society and led to the formation of two different structures, in the terminology of V. O. Klyuchevsky, “soil” and “civilization.”
“Soil” is a way of life, the main features of which developed under the conditions of the Moscow kingdom. The bulk of the population was associated with him. Collectivism, the egalitarian principle of social justice, and anti-property sentiments dominated here. “Soil” developed the richest traditions of folk culture and preserved the value system of the past. “Civilization” is a way of life of the Western type that arose from the time of the reforms of Peter I. Almost within the same country, two societies coexisted: “soil” spoke Russian, “civilization” spoke French, different systems of values and ideologies coexisted, gravitating towards different development paths. The confrontation between two cultures is the most important factor that determined the development of Russia in the 18th - 19th centuries.
Under Peter I, problems of the development of school education became state policy for the first time. Secular schools are being created. In 1701, a school of mathematical and navigational sciences was opened in Moscow - the first secular state educational institution. Soon schools were opened in the capitals: Artillery, Engineering, Medical, and mining schools were created in the Urals. Since 1714, “digital” (primary) schools began to operate in provincial cities. The decree of Peter I ordered “all children of the nobility and clerks” to study in these schools “total” and without a certificate of completion “they should not be allowed to marry and not be given coronal memorials.” Later, “digital” schools were merged with garrison schools for soldiers’ children. With the creation of the Land Noble Corps in 1731, the beginning of class formation was laid. The emerging system of ranks gave an educated person a higher social status, for example, nobility.
Significantly more books began to be published. In the first quarter of the XVIII
century, more of them were published than in the previous 150 years since the beginning of printing in the country. Popular textbooks were republished: “Grammar” by M. Smotritsky, “Arithmetic” by L. F. Magnitsky, “Primer” by F. P. Polikarpov. Since 1710, the civil alphabet was introduced, which significantly simplified writing, and since 1703 the Vedomosti newspaper has been published. State bookstores are opened to sell books. The first Russian accessible museum with a library is being created on the basis of the personal collection of Peter I. In 1725, the Academy of Sciences was organized, under which a university was opened. Natural sciences received preferential development. A.K. Nartov became a prominent figure in technology. The expedition of V. Bering made a significant contribution to geography.
The development of the ideology of absolutism took a central place in socio-political thought. Approval or rejection of absolutism is the main issue of ideological clashes. Along with the divine origin of power, ideas about monarchy are developing as the highest form of power, capable of ensuring the common good of all subjects.
An understanding of personality is being formed that is different from the medieval one, not as sinful, but active, serving the state, citizen and patriot. It must be emphasized that such qualities were associated with the highest strata of society, while the main population of Russia - peasants - were deprived of basic human rights.
The artistic culture of Peter the Great's era was of a transitional nature. Art is becoming more secular and diverse in terms of genres, and the author’s principle is developing. A new literary language is being formed, although there was even greater linguistic diversity. A notable figure in literature was F. Prokopovich, who created the works “On Poetic Art”, “Rhetoric”, and the tragicomedy “Vladimir”.
The secular music of the era is represented by simple everyday forms of military, table and dance music; kanty, a polyphonic everyday song, was widespread.
In architecture, the principles of architecture of the New Age are formed, based on “regularity” - a preliminary plan for the development of the city, the development of a correct layout, the creation of integral ensembles, which was especially clearly manifested in the construction of St. Petersburg.
In the fine arts, engraving, which affirms secular content, has become widespread; it has become an indispensable element of educational literature, newspapers, and calendars. The leading genre in painting is the portrait, the prominent masters of which were I. N. Nikitin (1690 - 1742) and A. P. Matveev (1701/4 - 1739).
Life has changed significantly, especially among the upper strata of society: European clothing is widely distributed, regular postal service begins, a new calendar and holidays (New Year) are introduced, theaters are created, assemblies are regularly held with music playing, dancing, games, a new etiquette is formed, the position of women changes significantly -noblewomen, in relation to whom the norms of “Domostroy” cease to apply, although true emancipation was still far away. Traveling abroad, studying abroad, and studying foreign languages contributed to getting to know the world.
In the second quarter of the 18th century, despite the difficult situation in the country and the attempts of the opposition to return to previous foundations, the development of culture nevertheless took a step forward, especially during the reign of the daughter of Peter I, Elizaveta Petrovna (1741 - 1761). It was at this time that the talent of M.V. Lomonosov blossomed.
The era of Catherine II - the “Catherine's Golden Age” - is a time of glory and power of Russia, which secured its status as a great power, when significant successes were achieved in the Enlightenment and in the “Westernization” of the country. In the second half of the 18th century, a new culture finally emerged, brought to life by absolutism, as a noble, secular culture, open to contact with other peoples, enriched by the achievements of other cultures, but also aware of itself, its place, and specificity. The culture of this period was permeated by the ideas of the Enlightenment. What contributed to progress - science, theater, education, literature, art - enjoyed the enthusiastic support of figures of the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment expressed the most essential needs of its time, but the enlighteners wanted to carry out the necessary transformations peacefully - through reforms of “philosophers on the throne”, fair laws, the dissemination of reasonable views, scientific knowledge and humane feelings. The ideas of the enlighteners turned out to be in tune with various representatives of Russian society due to the formulation of the problems of the human personality, its sovereignty, a new approach to morality, education, and so on. Enlighteners condemned police brutality and classism, sought to instill a love of knowledge, science, and theater as a means of education; they spoke from a position of high citizenship and patriotism. In spiritual life, in the beginning of the 18th century, ideological and moral problems and quests replaced practicality and expediency, and the social orientation of Russian culture intensified.
Russian national culture of the second half of the 18th century was formed, subject to the general laws of the European cultural movement, while maintaining its originality and originality. Also, in accordance with the basic laws of Western Europe, the art of Russia developed.
In the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries, the network of educational institutions expanded significantly. A system of class education is developing, including closed ones: the Corps of Pages, the “Educational Society of Noble Maidens” at the Smolny Monastery, lyceums, in particular, and Tsarskoye Selo (1811). Professional art schools appeared: the Dance School in St. Petersburg (1738) - now the ballet school of A. Ya. Vaganova, the Academy of Arts (1758).
By the beginning of the 19th century, a system of higher, secondary and primary education was established. Universities operated in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, Dorpat (Tartu), Kharkov, Vilna. Pedagogical institutes were opened to train teachers, for example, the St. Petersburg Main Pedagogical Institute. The number of gymnasiums and schools (4- and 2-grade), as well as parochial schools, expanded. In 1802, the Ministry of Public Education was created, centralizing the management of the school. By the end of the 18th century, there were 550 educational institutions in Russia with 60-70 thousand students.
Book publishing has expanded significantly. In 1819, there were 66 printing houses operating in Russia. A special role in book publishing was played by the educator N.I. Novikov, from whose printing houses about 1 thousand book titles came out, which accounted for a third of all Russian printed products. The network of public libraries has expanded.
The formation of the literary language continues. So N.M. Karamzin (1766 - 1826) tried to bring the literary language closer to the folk one.
M.V. Lomonosov, I.I. Polzunov, I.P. Kulibin successfully worked in science and technology. “Russian History”, written by V. N. Tatishchev, had a wide resonance in society.
The ideology of “enlightened absolutism” was formed. Freemasonry spread, mainly in the form of Rosicrucianism, which involved personal improvement through enlightenment. The democratic opposition also made itself known, in particular, A. N. Radishchev (1749 - 1802) wrote the book “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow,” denouncing serfdom.
Russian artistic culture experienced the growing influence of Western European art; for the first time, artistic and aesthetic directions characteristic of European art as a whole were clearly defined. Baroque in Russia played the role of a transitional style, and classicism became the dominant direction in the artistic culture of the second half of the 18th century. Russian classicism was formed later than Western European classicism. It is characterized by normativity, genre regulation, and a pronounced interest in antiquity. Translations of ancient authors, especially Anacreon and Horace, were very popular in Russia. The architecture of Greece and Rome was perceived as a model of perfection; ancient elements: columns, porticos, pediments - became indispensable details of the design of buildings. Ancient subjects became widespread in poetry, drama, and painting.
The aesthetics of classicism, based on the rationalistic ideas of the philosophy of the Enlightenment, required art to solve large state and social problems, which determined its high civic pathos. The peculiarity of Russian classicism is its great connection with the Enlightenment, which introduced into it the ideas of democracy, an understanding of public duty in the spirit of Enlightenment principles: sympathy for the peasantry, condemnation of the ignorant nobility, conviction in the power of knowledge as a means of getting rid of social vices.
The literature of the 18th century was educational, it carried a strong humanistic and satirical beginning, created the image of a new man - a patriot and citizen, and contributed to the establishment of the extra-class value of man. Among the writers one can highlight
V.K. Trediakovsky (1703 - 1768), A.P. Sumarokov (1717 - 1777), D.I. Fonvizin (1744/45 - 1792), G.R. Derzhavin (1743 - 1816). At the turn of the 18th - 19th centuries, sentimentalism was formed, with its characteristic emotional perception of the world around us, and an increased interest in human feelings.
In the 18th century, performing arts developed in Russia. In 1756, the first state theater was established in St. Petersburg, the basis of which was the Yaroslavl troupe of F. G. Volkov. In addition to the capitals, theater troupes are created in the provinces, serf theaters operate, the most notable of which are the Sheremetyevsky in Ostankino and the Yusupovsky in Arkhangelsk.
Domestic composers appeared in music, a Russian school of composition was formed, in which E. I. Fomin (1761 - 1800), whose melodrama “Orpheus” is considered the largest achievement of musical culture of the 18th century, occupied a special place. Opera became the leading musical genre; at the beginning of the 19th century, the genre of chamber lyrical song emerged.
Fine art also developed on the aesthetics of classicism. In academic painting, a system of genres has developed: portraiture, monumental and decorative painting, landscape, theatrical decorative art, historical painting - this is what was given preference at the Academy of Arts.
Artists of the first magnitude were A. P. Losenko (1737 - 1773), G. I. Ugryumov (1764 - 1823), F. S. Rokotov (1735 - 1808), D. G. Levitsky (1735 - 1822),
V. L. Borovikovsky (1757 - 1825). At this time, the great sculptors F. Shubin and E. Falcone were creating.
Talented architects were V. I. Bazhenov (1737 - 1799) - the creator of the “Pashkov House”, M. E. Starov (1745 - 1808) - the author of the Tauride Palace, M. F. Kazakov (1738 - 1812) - who built the Senate in the Kremlin , Moscow University, Noble Assembly.
A. S. Pushkin played a huge role in the development of Russian national culture and literature. N.V. Gogol noted: “At the name of A.S. Pushkin, the thought of a Russian national poet immediately dawns... Pushkin is an extraordinary phenomenon, and perhaps the only phenomenon of the Russian spirit: this is a Russian man in his development, in which he , perhaps, will appear in two hundred years.” (Gogol N.V. Collected works in 6 volumes - M.: Khud. lit., 1959. - P. 33).
A. S. Pushkin expressed the idea of the “universality” of Russian culture. In the era of Pushkin, art and, above all, literature acquired unprecedented importance in Russia. Literature turned out to be a universal form of social self-awareness; it combined aesthetic goals with tasks that were usually within the competence of other forms or spheres of culture. Such syncretism assumed an active life-creative role: literature often modeled the psychology and behavior of the enlightened part of Russian society. People built their lives based on high book models, embodying literary situations, types, and ideals in their actions or experiences. Therefore, they placed art above many other values.
This unusual role of Russian literature has been explained in different ways. A. I. Herzen attached decisive importance to the lack of political freedom in Russian society. But there are deeper reasons than this: for the holistic spiritual development of Russian life -
internally heterogeneous, incorporating several different social structures - it was precisely the form of artistic thinking that was required that alone could solve such a problem. In the 19th century, Russian literature had the function of unifying culture. Russian culture of the 19th century is literary-centric. Literature influenced philosophy, social thought, fine arts, music, which were largely animated by literary images, plots, ideas, and thereby influenced public consciousness. Literature became a public platform and assumed universal, universal functions, replacing all other branches of Russian culture and uniting them into one integrative whole, that is, literature became a form of cultural synthesis. V.V. Rozanov even wrote that literature destroyed Rus'.
As already mentioned, the intelligentsia became an opponent of the Russian autocracy in modern times. The Russian intelligentsia is an estate that arose not on an economic or political, but on an ideological basis; this association is of a spiritual nature, and hence a certain groundlessness of the Russian intelligentsia, which constituted a socially weakened detachment of the Russian elite. There was no middle culture in Russia; this middle path was embodied in words - hence the special place of literature in culture, and of the intelligentsia in society. An attempt was made to develop a coherent culture, but the synthesis remained incomplete by the time of the Russian revolutions of the twentieth century.
By the beginning of the 19th century, processes emerged in the socio-economic, political and spiritual life of Russia that spoke of a crisis and disintegration of the feudal-serf system. The social and cultural life of the country in the first half of the 19th century was greatly influenced by two events: the Patriotic War of 1812 and the Decembrist movement.
Reactionary features increasingly began to appear in the cultural policy of the autocracy. The influence of religion on education and its class is increasing; courses in natural sciences, history, and geography are being excluded or reduced; censorship is being tightened; literature and journalism are being persecuted. However, the needs of social development lead to cultural growth, albeit slower.
In socio-political thought, several main trends are emerging: official ideology, which is based on autocracy, Orthodoxy, and nationality; Westernism - based on the ideas of European liberalism; Slavophilism - based on the search for national identity; revolutionary-democratic, including supporters of the socialist direction, focusing on radical changes in social relations.
The literature of the 19th century is the “golden age” of Russian literature, associated with the names of A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, N. V. Gogol and others. Fiction, as one of the forms of social consciousness, had the greatest influence on the spiritual life of Russian society. Drama theater played a significant role in the socio-cultural and ideological life of the country. The dramaturgy of A. S. Griboyedov, N. V. Gogol, A. N. Ostrovsky contributed to the establishment of realistic drama in the theater repertoire. In music, the name of M. I. Glinka is associated with the emergence of Russian classics, a national school in Russian music. In architecture, major urban planning tasks are solved, in particular, monumental ensembles of St. Petersburg are created. The Russian Empire style (classicism) is flourishing. Outstanding architects A.D. Zakharov, A.N. Voronikhin, K.I. Rossi, O.I. Bove, D.I. Gilardi create. By decree of Nicholas I, the Russian-Byzantine style was created (Cathedral of Christ the Savior by K. A. Ton). The creativity of outstanding masters O. A. Kiprensky, K. P. Bryullov, A. A. Ivanov, A. G. Venetsianov, P. A. Fedotov flourishes in painting.
By the middle of the 19th century, one of the great stages in the history of Russian culture had ended, the features of which were its openness, the ability to accumulate and assimilate elements of the cultures of other peoples, while preserving national identity. At the same time, in the social and cultural life of Russia, the discrepancy between the achieved level of spiritual culture and the mastery of cultural values became more and more clearly evident. The society had very limited opportunities for the widespread dissemination of education and public education. The feudal system came into conflict not only with socio-economic, but also with socio-cultural progress. And this happened when the world began to change rapidly.
The world development of the late 19th and early 20th centuries was characterized by the following leading trends: 1) the progressive development of capitalism, the creation of a world market, and the formation of the colonial system. In the political sphere, the institutions of democracy developed: parliamentarism, law, fundamental freedoms, a multi-party system; trade unions, labor and socialist movements have received significant development; 2) the transformation of capitalism into a state-monopoly one, with growing state intervention in social processes; 3) an acute conflict approach to solving domestic and international problems.
For Russia in the second half of the 19th century, issues of modernization of the country acquired paramount, truly fateful importance. This process included solving the following critical problems: 1) the need to preserve the socio-political and imperial integrity of a multinational state; 2) ensuring equality of all citizens; 3) solution of social and political-legal problems due to the abolition of serfdom; 4) connection to the global economic and political order. The main problem was the question: will Russia be able to carry out modernization peacefully or will the revolution be inevitable and natural? A special role in the aggravation of social tension was played by the agrarian crisis of the late 19th century, when tens of millions of people appeared in the countryside with an ever-decreasing level of well-being, and a “senseless and merciless Russian revolt” grew among the peasantry.
Stolypin's reforms, for all their significance, turned out to be late and could not change the situation. The actively growing cooperative movement, which achieved brilliant results by October 1917, did not solve the problems either.
A reflection of different approaches to solving Russian problems was the presence in the country by 1920 of about 90 political parties that operated in different years of the early twentieth century.
In Russia, according to the 1897 census, there were 126 million people, including 94 million in 50 European provinces. The system of governing the country was characterized by autocratic methods. Before the revolution of 1905 - 1907, there was no representative government. There was over-centralism, classism, cumbersome management and undemocratic nature. There were 0.5 million officials and 1 million army in the country. The unresolved national question became more acute. The state language was Russian, the state religion was Orthodoxy, 75% of the population was employed in agriculture.
Absolutism in Russia developed before the creation of an economic base. This is due to the need to concentrate limited resources on defending the existence of the state (for example, in the 16th century Russia fought for 43 years, in the 17th century - 48 years, in the 18th century - 56 years). Tsarism played a significant role in creating the political power of Russia, but then became the reason for its destruction. Under Catherine II, Russia was neither backward nor independent; under Nicholas I it was backward but independent; under Alexander II, despite the reforms, backwardness and dependence began to increase; under Nicholas II, Russia became backward and dependent in socio-economic and political terms.
During the reforms of the 60s of the 19th century, capitalism began to develop rapidly in Russia. Its features were: high tempos; rapid urbanization; high concentration of production; preservation of the mass of direct remnants of serfdom, in particular, landownership, class, peasant community, autocracy; increased influx of foreign capital; national oppression. At the same time, the reforms of the 60s of the 19th century ensured the rapid formation of bourgeois relations in all spheres of life. By the 80s of the 19th century, the industrial revolution was completed in the country, there was a rapid growth in industrial production, the turnover of domestic and foreign trade was growing, railway construction was accelerated, the monetary reform of 1897 was carried out, but, despite the high pace, Russia was in 5th place in world in terms of economic indicators and its production was only 12.5% of the US production level.
Thus, in Russia there was a shift in the stages of the formation of large-scale industrial production, and there was a different sequence of agrarian and industrial capitalism than in the West. While the industrial revolution was completed by the 1980s, the agricultural revolution was not completed at all. The bourgeoisie developed as a merchant class, not a revolutionary one; it did not fulfill the historical task of independently creating large-scale industry. The proletariat was ahead of the bourgeoisie in social and political development. The roots of the Russian revolutions of the early 20th century lie in the entire history of the country and, especially, in the history of the 19th century.
The fall of serfdom meant the onset of a new stage in the cultural history of Russia. Conditions were created for a higher cultural level of society. In the development of culture in the second half of the 19th century, two stages can be distinguished: 1) the 60-70s, associated with the social democratic rise; 2) the 80s and early 90s were a period of a certain decline in social activity, but intellectually fruitful, when a search for new values took place.
In the 60-70s of the 19th century, education at all levels began to grow rapidly; in 1863, the University Charter was published - the most liberal in pre-revolutionary times, and a system of higher education for women was formed. At the same time, according to the 1897 census, only 1% of the population had secondary and higher education.
Book printing developed, “thick magazines” were published - “Sovremennik”, “Russian Bulletin”, “Bulletin of Europe”, daily newspapers, a library system was taking shape, and new museums were opening.
The role of the intelligentsia grew significantly, whose activities were associated, first of all, with the development of public education, science, literature and art. According to the 1897 census, out of 126 million people in Russia, 170 thousand people were engaged in teaching work, 1 thousand in library work, 5 thousand in book trade, 18 thousand in artists and entertainers, 3 thousand in scientists and writers, 3 thousand in clergy. 250 thousand. For the 60-70s, democratic ideas prevailed in the public consciousness and, above all, among the intelligentsia, and the conviction in the need for reforms was characteristic.
The main artistic direction of the second half of the 19th century
century became critical realism. He was distinguished by increased social activity. Literature and art have come closer than ever to reflecting real life (for example, essays and novels about modern life, modern everyday drama, everyday genre in painting).
Revolutionary-democratic aesthetics, which connected literature and art with the tasks of transforming reality (N. G. Chernyshevsky, N. A. Dobrolyubov), had a significant influence on artistic creativity. At the same time, such aesthetics deepened the split in Russian culture, thereby playing a contradictory role.
G. I. Uspensky, N. S. Leskov, I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, N. A. Nekrasov, L. N. Tolstoy worked in literature. A. N. Ostrovsky stood out in dramaturgy, considering theater “a sign of the maturity of a nation, just like academies, universities and museums.”
At this time, the creative association of composers “The Mighty Handful,” as V.V. Stasov called them, played a huge role in the development of musical culture, which included M.A. Balakirev, M.P. Mussorgsky, Ts.A. Cui, A.P. . Borodin, N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov. Their work is characterized by the desire to convey in music the truth of life, national character, and the widespread use of musical folklore. The work of P. I. Tchaikovsky acquires a special place in music.
In painting, artists who broke with the Academy of Arts created the “Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions” in 1871. Artists of this movement were distinguished by a desire for citizenship, awareness of the problems of their time, and interest in their contemporary. The Wanderers included V. G. Perov, I. N. Kramskoy, N. Ya. Yaroshenko, A. K. Savrasov, I. E. Repin, N. N. Ge, V. I. Surikov and others. In sculpture, M. M. Antokolsky,
A. M. Opekushin.
The democratic upsurge of the first post-reform decades gave way to a political reaction, which also influenced cultural life. In social thought, revolutionary populism is being replaced by liberalism with the ideas of “small deeds”, “gradual progress”, and Tolstoyism. Social democracy is born. Ideological and spiritual life becomes more complicated. Many cultural figures gradually moved away from sharp accusations. Their attention began to be increasingly attracted to universal, philosophically generalized, moral and psychological problems.
The mid-90s of the 19th century in the socio-political life of Russia was marked by a turn from reaction to a gradually increasing social upsurge, which was accompanied by a brilliant flowering of culture, which is usually called the “Silver Age”, “Russian Renaissance”.
10. The 19th century in Russian history was a direct continuation of the previous one. Russia continued to expand its territories. After the annexation of the North Caucasus. Central Asia and other lands, it became not just a huge, but truly immense country - empire.
The transformations begun by Peter I also continued. Russia slowly and as if reluctantly emerged from its medieval past and became increasingly drawn into the New Age. However, its development was uneven. The most profound and impressive changes occurred in spiritual culture.
In this area, the 19th century became a time of unprecedented rise and prosperity for Russia. If in the 18th century. Russia loudly declared its existence to the whole world, then in the 19th century. she literally burst into world culture, occupying one of the highest and most honorable places there. The main credit for this belongs to two great Russian writers - F.M. Dostoevsky And L.N. Tolstoy.
Acquaintance with their work was a real discovery, revelation and shock for the West. Their enormous success contributed to the elevation of the authority of the entire Russian spiritual culture, strengthening its influence and rapid spread throughout the world.
The basis of the emerging industry is the rapidly developing metallurgy, where the Demidov factories in the Urals play a key role. The textile industry is developing successfully. The growth of industry contributes to the growth of cities and an increase in their population. Cities are increasingly beginning to dominate the countryside.
However, the process of modernization of socio-economic life and material culture is slow. The main obstacle is the persistence of serfdom and autocracy. In this respect, Russia was still a medieval feudal society.
The reform of 1861, which abolished serfdom, changed the situation. However, this reform was inconsistent and half-hearted, it retained many factors constraining development, so its impact was limited. In addition, the political system of autocracy remained practically unaffected. At the same time, the same factors had a stimulating effect on spiritual life. They encouraged the Russian intelligentsia to again and again pose and seek answers to the eternal questions that had become for them: “Who is to blame?”, “What to do?”
In general, the main and most important events and phenomena that determined the development of Russian culture in the 19th century were the Patriotic War of 1812, the Decembrist uprising of 1825, serfdom and the reform of 1861 to abolish it.
Patriotic War of 1812 caused an increase in national self-awareness and an unprecedented rise in patriotism. It awakened in Russians a sense of pride in their fatherland, in their people, who managed to defeat such a strong enemy, defending not only their national freedom, but also the freedom of European peoples. All this contributed to a noticeable weakening and disappearance of extreme forms of admiration for everything Western that took place in the upper strata of Russian society. The war also had a beneficial and inspiring effect on Russian art. Many artists dedicated their works to the theme of war. As an example, we can point to L. Tolstoy’s novel “War and Peace”.
The Patriotic War was also one of the main reasons for the emergence Decembrist movements - movements of the Russian revolutionary nobility. The Decembrists were deeply disappointed with the results of the war, believing that the Russian people who won it did not gain anything for themselves. It was as if his victory was stolen from him. Having defended the freedom of others, he himself remained in “slavery and ignorance.”
Based on the liberation ideas of Western philosophers and thinkers and influenced by the French and American revolutions, the Decembrists set radical tasks for their movement: the overthrow or limitation of autocracy, the abolition of serfdom, the establishment of a republican or constitutional system, the abolition of estates, the establishment of individual and property rights, etc. . They viewed the implementation of these tasks as fulfilling a “duty to the people.” For this reason, they went to an armed uprising and were defeated.
The Decembrist uprising had a huge impact on the entire subsequent evolution of Russia. It caused a powerful upsurge of social and philosophical thought. His influence on artistic culture was great and profound. A.S. expressed his closeness to the ideas and spirit of Decembrism in his work. Pushkin, as well as other artists.
One of the central themes of Russian social and philosophical thought was the theme of choosing the path of development, the theme of the future of Russia. This theme came in the 19th century. from the previous century. It tormented the Decembrists and was inherited by two important trends in Russian thought - Westernism and Slavophilism. Both movements rejected the existing regime of autocracy and serfdom, but they deeply diverged in their understanding of the ways to rebuild Russia. They also looked at the transformations of Peter I differently.
Westerners - among whom were P.V. Annenkov, V.P. Botkin, T.N. Granovsky - stood on the positions of cultural universalism and rationalism. They highly appreciated Peter's reforms and advocated the development of Russia along the Western path, considering it universal and inevitable for all peoples. Westerners were supporters of European education, science and enlightenment, the determining role of laws and rights in the organization of public life.
Slavophiles, who were represented by I.S. and K.S. Aksakovs, I.V. and P.V. Kireevskie. A.S. Khomyakov, on the contrary, stood on the positions of cultural relativism and Orthodoxy. They negatively assessed Peter's reforms, which, in their opinion, disrupted the natural evolution of Russia. Slavophiles rejected the Western European path of development, insisted on the unique development of Russia, and placed emphasis on its religious, historical, cultural and national identity.
They did not reject the need to create modern industry and agriculture, trade and banking, but believed that in doing so they should rely on their forms, methods and traditions, the sources of which were the Russian community, artel and Orthodoxy.
Slavophiles (I.V. Kireevsky, A.S. Khomyakov, K.S. Aksakov, etc.) laid the foundation for the development of an original and original Russian philosophy, the basis of which is not Western rationalism, but Orthodox religiosity. In the knowledge of truth, Western philosophy gives preference to reason. Slavophiles develop the concept of the integrity of the spirit, according to which all human abilities - feelings, reason and faith, as well as will and love - participate in cognition.
Truth, moreover, does not belong to an individual person, but to a collective of people united by a single love, from which a collective consciousness is born. Sobornost opposes individualism and disunity. Considering freedom, the Slavophiles emphasized its conditioning by internal motives and motivations and rejected its dependence on external circumstances. A person in his actions and deeds must be guided by his conscience, spiritual, and not material interests.
Slavophiles were skeptical about legal forms of regulating people's behavior. Therefore, they were not worried about the modest role of the legal principle in the life of Russian society. The main regulator of relations between people should be the true faith and the true Church. Slavophiles believed that only the Christian worldview and the Orthodox Church could lead humanity onto the path of salvation. They were convinced that it was Russian Orthodoxy that most fully embodied truly Christian principles, while Catholicism and Protestantism had moved away from the true faith. In this regard, they put forward the idea of Russia's messianic role in the salvation of humanity. The ideas of Slavophilism had a great influence on the subsequent development of Russian philosophy; they were continued in ideology of pochvennichestvo, one of the main representatives of which was F. Dostoevsky.
Russian science and education of the 19th century.
The basis of the cultural rise of Russia in the 19th century. were her significant successes in business development of education. By the beginning of the century, education in the country lagged noticeably behind the level of Western countries. The overwhelming majority of people who were illiterate were not only the lower classes - peasants and townspeople, but also the upper classes - merchants and even many nobles. The need for educated and knowledgeable people was acutely felt at all levels of government and society.
Therefore, already at the beginning of the century, the government of Alexander I decided to create a unified education system, including four levels: parish one-class schools for the lower strata, district two-class schools for townspeople, merchants, and townspeople; provincial four-year gymnasiums - for nobles; universities and other higher education institutions.
After the reform of 1861, which abolished serfdom, the development of the education system accelerated. In post-reform times, Russia's literacy increased from 7 to 22% of the population. By the end of the century there were 63 institutions of higher education, including 10 universities. The total number of students was 30 thousand. Since 1819. Women's education is developing, and in the 1870s. higher education for women begins. In 1869, the Lubyanka Higher Women's Courses opened in Moscow, and in 1870, the Alarcha Courses opened in St. Petersburg. The Bestuzhev Women's Courses in St. Petersburg became most famous. However, the development of women's education was not without difficulties. Therefore, in the 1870s. At the University of Zurich, girls from Russia made up 80% of all foreign students.
Advances in education and enlightenment contributed to further progress Russian science, which is experiencing real prosperity. At the same time, one unusual, but characteristic for Russia, tradition is emerging: to develop successfully without having the necessary and sufficient conditions for this, and to remain unclaimed by society. In the 19th century Russia has given the world a whole galaxy of great scientists. The list of the greatest discoveries and achievements alone looks quite impressive.
In area mathematicians they are associated primarily with the names of N.I. Lobachevsky, A.A. Markova and others. The first created non-Euclidean geometry, which revolutionized ideas about the nature of space, which was based on the teachings of Euclid for more than two thousand years. The second developed the so-called Markov chains, which laid the foundation for a new direction in probability theory.
IN astronomy The works of V.Ya. have received worldwide recognition. Struve, who made the first determination of stellar parallax (mixing), established the presence of light absorption in interstellar space. Achievements in astronomy were largely associated with the founding of the Pulkovo Observatory, which became one of the best in the world.
Russian scientists made a huge contribution to the development physicists, especially in the study of electricity. V.V. Petrov discovered the electric arc, which has found wide practical application. E.H. Lenz formulated a rule (later named after him) that determines the direction of the induction current; experimentally substantiated the Joule-Lenz law. B.S. Jacobi invented the electric motor, created electroforming, together with submarines. Shilling invented the electric telegraph and designed the first telegraph recording apparatus, operating on the St. Petersburg - Tsarskoe Selo line. Russian scientists have great merit in creating the theory of electrolysis, in the development of electronic, atomic and quantum physics.
The progress of chemistry also owes a lot to Russian scientists. D.M. Mendeleev established the Periodic Law of Chemical Elements, which became the greatest achievement of world science. N.N. Zinin discovered a method for the production of aromatic amines, synthesized quinine and aniline for the first time. A .M. Butlerov created a new theory of the chemical structure of matter, laying the foundations of modern organic chemistry, and discovered the polymerization reaction.
IN geography in January 1820, Russian navigators made the greatest discovery: the expedition F.F. Bellingshausen - M.P. Lazarev discovered a sixth of the world - Antarctica.
Development marked great achievements biology F.M. Dostoevsky medicine. Russian doctors were the first to use painkillers - anesthesia. N.I. Pirogov was the first to use ether anesthesia in military field conditions, and created the atlas “Topographic Anatomy,” which gained worldwide fame. N.F. Sklifosovsky began to use the antiseptic method during operations.
The social sciences also developed successfully, the leading among which was story. Russian scientists paid their main attention to the study of Russian history. N.M. Karamzin created the twelve-volume “History of the Russian State,” which had unprecedented success and was reprinted more than once. A major and authoritative historian was CM. Soloviev. He owns the “History of Russia since Ancient Times” in 29 volumes, containing rich factual material. Made a significant contribution to the study of the history of the fatherland IN. Klyuchevsky. He wrote “A Course in Russian History,” as well as works on the history of serfdom, classes, and finance.
Made significant achievements linguistics. Here the activity deserves special mention IN AND. Dalia, compiler of the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language,” on which he worked for about 50 years and which has retained its significance to this day.
The 19th century was the time of formation as an independent science. It critically masters the achievements of Western philosophical thought in the person of Kant, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Hartmann, Nietzsche, etc. At the same time, it develops a rich spectrum of original schools and movements - from left-radical to religious-mystical. The largest figures were: P.Ya. Chaadaev, I.V. Kireevsky, A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky, B.S. Soloviev.
The same can be said about sociology and psychology: they are also experiencing a period of active formation.
Russian literature of the 19th century.
The most favorable and fruitful 19th century. turned out to be for artistic culture, which experienced an unprecedented rise and flourishing and became classical. The main directions of Russian art were sentimentalism, romanticism and realism. The main role belonged to literature.
Founder and central figure sentimentalism was in Russia N.M. Karamzin. In the story “Poor Liza” he clearly showed the characteristic features of this direction in art: attention to the common man, revealing his inner world of feelings and experiences, glorifying the “natural simplicity” of the patriarchal way of life. To one degree or another, sentimentalism was present in the works of many Russian writers, but as an independent movement it was not widespread.
Romanticism had much greater influence and distribution. There were several currents in it. The theme of citizenship, patriotism and freedom is most strongly expressed in the works of the Decembrist poets: K.F. Ryleeva, A.I. Odoevsky, V.K. Kuchelbecker. Civil and freedom-loving motives are also heard in the works of A.A. Delviga, I.I. Kozlova, N.M. Yazykova. The depths and state of the spiritual world with a touch of fantasy and melancholy constitute the content of the works of V.A. Zhukovsky and K.N. Batyushkova. Philosophical lyrics, deep psychologism, Slavophile ideas and reverent love for Russia found expression in the works of F.I. Tyutchev and V.F. Odoevsky.
By the beginning of the 1830s. in Russian literature it is stated realism and becomes the main focus. The creativity of A.S. played an important role in its formation. Griboedova F.M. Dostoevsky AND.A. Krylova. However, the greatest names of Russian realism, of all Russian literature and culture are A.S. Pushkin, F.M. Dostoevsky and L.N. Tolstoy.
A.S. Pushkin became the founder of Russian literature, the creator of the Russian literary language. It is in his work that the Russian language for the first time appears truly great, powerful, truthful and free. His early works - “Ruslan and Lyudmila”, “Gypsies”, “Prisoner of the Caucasus”, etc. - are in line with romanticism.
Then he moves to the position of realism. All types and genres of literature are represented in his work. In poetry he acts as a singer of freedom. In the novel “Eugene Onegin” he paints large-scale pictures of Russian life. The tragedy "Boris Godunov" and the story "The Captain's Daughter" are dedicated to significant events in the history of Russia.
A.S. Pushkin was not only a great artist, but also an outstanding historian and thinker. In a dispute with P. Chaadaev, he gives a more subtle, deep and convincing understanding of the place and role of Russia in world history. Critically assessing the Asian ignorance, wild tyranny and violence, and lack of rights of the people existing in Russia, he opposes violent methods of changing the existing situation. A.S. Pushkin had a huge influence on the subsequent development of Russian literature, philosophy and all culture.
F.M. Dostoevsky and L.N. Russian literature and culture owe their world fame and recognition to Tolstoy. In my creativity F.M.Dostoevsky struggled with what he defined as “the mystery of man.” His main works are devoted to solving this mystery - “Crime and Punishment”, “The Idiot”, “The Brothers Karamazov”, etc. In them he examines the problems of the meaning of life, good and evil, goals and means of achievement, faith and unbelief, freedom and responsibility, passion and duty. At the same time, Dostoevsky goes beyond literature and acts as a profound philosopher and thinker. With his work he had a huge impact on such philosophical movements as existentialism F.M. Dostoevsky personalism, to all modern spiritual culture.
In the works of L.N. Tolstoy One of the central themes is the search for a moral ideal and the meaning of life. This theme runs through almost all of his works - the novels “Anna Karenina”, “Resurrection”, the story “The Death of Ivan Ilyich”, etc. In the grandiose epic “War and Peace” Tolstoy examines the origins of the victory of the Russian people in the war of 1812, which he sees in the extraordinary rise of the patriotic spirit.
Tolstoy is the creator of religious and philosophical teachings, the basis of which is the development of the “true religion” of universal love, goodness and non-violence. He had a huge influence on world literature and culture.
Among the great Russian writers who have received worldwide recognition are also M.Yu. Lermontov, N.V. Gogol, I.WITH. Turgenev, I.A. Goncharov, A.P. Chekhov.
Along with literature, the Russian music. Already in the first decades of the 19th century. A number of excellent composers appeared, many of whom gravitated towards romanticism. The leading genre is romance. He is represented by A.A. Alyabyev, P.P. Bulakhov. A.E. Varlamov, A.N. Verstovsky, A.L. Gurilev et al.
Most popular romances A.A. Alyabyeva became “Nightingale”, “Beggar”. P.P. Bulakhov is the author of no less popular romances and songs - “Troika”, “There’s a big village on the way”. A.E. Varlamov He became famous primarily for the song “A blizzard is blowing along the street” and the romance “Don’t wake her up at dawn.” In total, he wrote about 200 romances and songs. A.L. Gurilev belongs to “Separation”, “Bell”, “Mother Dove” and other romances and songs. A .N. Verstovsky is one of the main representatives of Russian romanticism in music. In addition to romances, he also created the famous opera Askold's Grave.
The greatest names in Russian musical art are M.I. Glinka F.M. Dostoevsky G1.I. Chaikovsky. Glinka became the pinnacle in the development of Russian music in the first half of the 19th century. He is the founder of Russian classical music. His main works are the operas “A Life for the Tsar” and “Ruslan and Lyudmila”. With his compositions “Kamarinskaya”, “Spanish Overtures” and others, the composer laid the foundations of Russian symphonism. All subsequent Russian musical art developed under the strong influence of Glinka.
Tchaikovsky became the pinnacle of the development of Russian music throughout the 19th century. It is to him that she primarily owes her world fame. He created true masterpieces in all musical genres. His most famous operas are Eugene Onegin and The Queen of Spades. The ballets “Swan Lake” and “Sleeping Beauty” received worldwide recognition. "Nutcracker". He created six symphonies, several piano and violin concertos. Tchaikovsky's musical genius is comparable to that of Mozart.
A huge contribution to the development of Russian and world musical culture was made by the “Mighty Handful” - a group of outstanding Russian composers, which included M.A. Balakirev (leader), A.P. Borodin, Ts.A. Cui, M.P. Mussorgsky and N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov.
The successful development of Russian music was facilitated by the opening of conservatories in St. Petersburg (1862) and Moscow (1866).
Russian painting and art of the 19th century.
Great achievements have also been noted in the development of fine arts, especially painting. Romanticism in Russian painting of the 19th century. represented by O.A. Kiprensky and S.F. Shchedrin. The first is known mainly as a portrait painter, who painted “Self-Portrait with Brushes Behind the Ear”, “A.S. Pushkin", "E.P. Rostopchin” and others. The second created poetic images of Italian nature, in particular the series “Harbors in Sorrento”.
In creativity K.P. Bryullov Romanticism is combined with classicism. His brushes include such famous paintings as “The Last Day of Pompeii”, “Bathsheba”, etc.
From the middle of the 19th century. Realism becomes the leading direction in Russian painting. Its establishment and successful development was facilitated by the Association of Itinerants, which arose in 1870, which included almost all the best Russian artists of that time. Realism in painting reached its highest peak in creativity I.E. Repina F.M. Dostoevsky IN AND. Surikov. The first created such masterpieces as “Barge Haulers on the Volga”, “Religious Procession in Kursk Province”, as well as portraits “Protodeacon”. “Mussorgsky” and others. The second is known for the paintings “The Morning of the Streltsy Execution”, “Boyaryna Morozova”, “Mentikov in Berezovo”, etc.
Outstanding realist artists were also I.N. Kramskoy, V.M. Vasnetsov, V.G. Perov, P.A. Fedotov, A.K. Savrasov, I.I. Shishkin.
It is also developing very successfully Russian theater. Its heyday is associated with the name of the great playwright A.N. Ostrovsky, whose creative destiny was connected with the Maly Theater in Moscow. He created the plays “The Thunderstorm”, “Profitable Place”, “Forest”, “Dowry”, the production of which made Russian theater classic. An outstanding actor on the Russian stage was M.S. Shchepkin.
The impressive successes and achievements of Russian culture still seem surprising and incredible today. But they really existed and allowed Russia to take its rightful place among the leading countries of the world.
The extraordinary rise of national culture in the first half of the 19th century. allowed us to call this time the “golden claim.” If in economic and socio-political development Russia lagged behind advanced European states, then in cultural achievements it not only kept pace with them, but was often ahead.
Development of Russian culture in the first half of the 19th century. relied on the transformations of the previous time. The penetration of elements of capitalist relations into the economy has increased the need for literate and educated people. Cities became major cultural centers. New social strata were drawn into social processes. Culture developed against the background of the ever-increasing national self-awareness of the Russian people and, in connection with this, had a pronounced national character. The Patriotic War of 1812 had a significant impact on literature, theater, music, and fine arts.
However, conservative tendencies in the policies of Emperors Alexander I and Nicholas I hampered the development of culture. The government actively fought against manifestations of advanced social thought in literature, journalism, theater and painting. It prevented widespread public education. Serfdom did not provide the entire population with the opportunity to enjoy high cultural achievements. The cultural demands and needs of the top of society were different from those of the people, who developed their own cultural traditions.
The level of education of a society is one of the indicators of the cultural state of the country. In Russia at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. he was extremely short. The population, and mainly the peasantry, was illiterate or semi-literate. Therefore, the efforts of the government of Alexander I were aimed at creating a public education system. It consisted of: one-year parish schools; three-class district schools; seven-grade gymnasiums. In the era of Alexander I, education was classless. Under Nicholas I, it took on a closed class character: parish schools for peasants; district schools for children of merchants, artisans and other urban inhabitants; gymnasiums for children of nobles and officials. In addition, special secondary educational institutions were opened for the nobility - cadet corps, etc. Only a gymnasium education or graduation from special educational institutions for the nobility gave the right to enter universities.
Since 1811, the famous Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum has become an exemplary educational institution. The teaching program there was almost identical to the university one. The writers A. S. Pushkin, V. K. Kuchelbecker, I. I. Pushchin, A. A. Delvig, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin were educated at the Lyceum; diplomats A. M. Gorchakov and N. K. Gire; Minister of Public Education D. A. Tolstoy; publicist N. Ya. Danilevsky and others.
The home education system was widespread. It focused on the study of foreign languages, literature, music, painting, and rules of behavior in society.
In the first half of the 19th century. There was no system of female education in Russia. Several closed institutes (secondary educational institutions) were opened only for noblewomen, modeled after the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens. The program was designed for 7-8 years of study and included arithmetic, literature, history, foreign languages, music, dance, and home economics. At the beginning of the twentieth century. In St. Petersburg and Moscow, schools were created for girls whose fathers had the rank of chief officer. In the 1930s, several schools were opened for the daughters of guards soldiers and Black Sea sailors. However, the majority of women were deprived of the opportunity to receive even primary education.
Conservative tendencies dominated the government's policy towards primary and secondary education. Many government officials realized the growing need for educated or at least literate people. At the same time, they were afraid of widespread education of the people. This position was substantiated by the chief of gendarmes A. X. Benkendorf. “We should not be in too much of a hurry with enlightenment, lest the people become, in terms of their concepts, on a level with the monarchs and then encroach on the weakening of their power.” All programs of educational institutions were under strict government control. They were intensively filled with religious content and principles that fostered monarchical feelings.
However, even in these difficult conditions, higher education continued to develop. New universities were opened in Derit (now Tartu), St. Petersburg (on the basis of the Pedagogical Institute), Kazan, and Kharkov. The legal status of universities was determined by the Charters of 1804 and 1835. The latter clearly demonstrated the strengthening of the conservative line in government policy. Universities lost their autonomy, and the increase in tuition fees hit hard on the poor segments of young people who were striving for knowledge. To train qualified personnel, special higher educational institutions were created: Medical-Surgical Academy, Technological, Construction and Surveying Institutes, Higher School of Law, Lazarevsky Institute of Oriental languages, etc.
Universities and institutes became the main centers that promoted modern scientific achievements and formed national identity. Public lectures by Moscow University professors on problems of national and world history, commercial and natural sciences were very popular. The lectures on general history by Professor T. N. Granovsky became especially famous.
Despite the obstacles imposed by the government, democratization of the student body took place. Raznochintsy (people from non-noble strata) sought to obtain higher education. Many of them were engaged in self-education, joining the ranks of the emerging Russian intelligentsia. Among them are the poet A. Koltsov, publicist N.A. Polevoy, A.V. Nikitenko, a former serf who was bought out and became a literary critic and academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.
The science
Unlike the 18th century, which was characterized by the encyclopedism of scientists, in the first half of the 19th century. differentiation of sciences began, the identification of independent scientific disciplines (natural and humanities). Along with the deepening of theoretical knowledge, scientific discoveries that had applied significance and were introduced, albeit slowly, into practical life, became increasingly important.
The natural sciences were characterized by attempts to gain deeper insight into the understanding of the basic laws of nature. The research of philosophers (physicist and agrobiologist M. G. Pavlov, physician I. E. Dyadkovsky) made a significant contribution in this direction. Professor of Moscow University, biologist K. F. Roulier, even before Charles Darwin, created an evolutionary theory of the development of the animal world. Mathematician N. I. Lobachevsky in 1826, ahead of his contemporary scientists, created the theory of “non-Euclidean geometry”. The Church declared it heretical, and colleagues recognized it as correct only in the 60s of the 19th century. In 1839, the construction of the building of the Pulkovo Astronomical Observatory was completed. It was equipped with modern equipment for that time. The observatory was headed by astronomer V. Ya. Struve, who discovered the concentration of stars in the main plane of the Milky Way.
In applied sciences, particularly important discoveries were made in the fields of electrical engineering, mechanics, biology and medicine. Physicist B. S. Jacobi in 1834 designed electric motors powered by galvanic batteries. Academician V.V. Petrov created a number of original physical instruments and laid the foundation for the practical use of electricity. P. L. Schilling created the first recording electromagnetic telegraph. Father and son E. A. and M. E. Cherepanov built a steam engine and the first steam-powered railway in the Urals. Chemist N. N. Zinin developed a technology for the synthesis of aniline, an organic substance used to fix dyes in the textile industry. P.P. Anosov revealed the secret of making damask steel, lost in the Middle Ages. N.I. Pirogov was the first in the world to begin performing operations under ether anesthesia and widely used antiseptic agents in military field surgery. Professor A. M. Filomafitsky developed a method for using a microscope to study blood elements and, together with N. I. Pirogov, a method of intravenous anesthesia.
The emergence of Russia as a great Eurasian power and its geopolitical interests required active research not only of the adjacent territories, but also of remote areas of the globe. The first Russian round-the-world expedition was undertaken in 1803-1806. under the command of I.F. Krusenstern and Yu.F. Lisyansky. The expedition went from Kronstadt to Kamchatka and Alaska. The islands of the Pacific Ocean, the coast of China, Sakhalin Island and the Kamchatka Peninsula were studied. Later, Yu. F. Lisyansky, having traveled from the Hawaiian Islands to Alaska, collected rich geographical and ethnographic materials about these territories. In 1819-1821 A Russian expedition led by F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev was carried out, which discovered Antarctica on January 16, 1820. F.P. Litke studied the Arctic Ocean and the territory of Kamchatka. G.I. Nevelskoy discovered the mouth of the Amur, the strait between Sakhalin and the mainland, proving that Sakhalin is an island and not a peninsula, as previously believed. O. E. Kotzebue explored the west coast of North America and Alaska. After these expeditions, many geographical objects on the world map were named by Russian names.
The humanities became a special branch and developed successfully. At the beginning of the 19th century. and especially after the Patriotic War of 1812, the desire to understand Russian history as an important element of national culture intensified. The Society of Russian History and Antiquities was created at Moscow University. An intensive search for monuments of ancient Russian writing began. In 1800, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” was published - an outstanding monument of ancient Russian literature of the 12th century. The Archaeographic Commission began work on collecting and publishing documents on Russian history. The first archaeological excavations began on Russian territory.
In 1818, the first 8 volumes of N. M. Karamzin’s “History of the Russian State” were published. The conservative-monarchist concept of this work caused a mixed response from the public: some (serf owners) praised the author, others (future Decembrists) condemned him. 19-year-old A. S. Pushkin responded with a friendly and ironic epigram:
“In his “History” there is elegance, simplicity
They prove to us, without any bias,
The need for autocracy - And the delights of the whip.”
N. M. Karamzin with his work aroused the interest of many writers in Russian history. Under his influence, “Historical Thoughts” by K. F. Ryleev, the tragedy “Boris Godunov” by A. S. Pushkin, and historical novels by I. I. Lazhechnikov and N. V. Kukolnik were created.
The next generations of historians (K. D. Kavelin, N. A. Polevoy, T. N. Granovsky, M. P. Pogodin, etc.) were characterized by the desire to rethink Russian history, to understand the patterns and specifics of its development, the connection and difference from Western Europe. At the same time, the demarcation of theoretical and philosophical positions deepened; historical observations were used to substantiate their political views and the program for the future structure of Russia. At the end of the 40s, the luminary of Russian historical science S. M. Solovyov began his research. His scientific activity mainly took place in the 50-70s of the 19th century. He created the 29-volume “History of Russia from Ancient Times” and many other works on various problems of Russian history.
An important task in the process of developing a national culture was the development of rules and norms for the Russian literary and spoken language. This was of particular importance due to the fact that many nobles could not write a single line in Russian and did not read books in their native language. There were different opinions about what the Russian language should be. Some scientists advocated the preservation of archaisms characteristic of the 18th century. Some protested against kowtowing to the West and the use of foreign words (mainly French) in the Russian literary language. The creation of a literature department at Moscow University and the activities of the Society of Lovers of Russian Literature were of great importance for solving this problem. The development of the foundations of the Russian literary language was finally realized in the works of writers N. M. Karamzin, A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, N. V. Gogol and others. Publicist N. I. Grech wrote “Practical Russian Grammar”.
Educational activities
Many scientific societies contributed to the dissemination of knowledge: Geographical, Mineralogical, Moscow Society of Naturalists, the above-mentioned Society of Russian History and Antiquities, Society of Lovers of Russian Literature. They organized public lectures, published reports and messages about the most outstanding achievements of Russian science, and financed various research.
The publication of books played a special role in educating the people.
At the beginning of the 19th century. There were only state printing houses; in the 30s and 40s, private book publishing spread. It is primarily associated with the name of A.F. Smirdin, who managed to reduce the cost of books, increase circulation and make the book widely available. He was not only an entrepreneur, but also a famous publisher and educator.
In the first half of the 19th century. The newspaper and magazine business has noticeably revived. In addition to the St. Petersburg and Moskovskiye Vedomosti, many private newspapers appeared (Northern Bee, Literary Newspaper, etc.) - The first Russian socio-political magazine was Vestnik Evropy, founded by N. M. Karamzin. Materials with patriotic content were published in the magazine “Son of the Fatherland.” The literary and artistic magazines Sovremennik and Otechestvennye zapiski, in which V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen and other progressive public figures collaborated, enjoyed enormous popularity in the 30-50s.
In 1814, the first public library appeared in St. Petersburg, which became a national book depository. Subsequently, public and paid libraries were opened in many provincial cities. Large private book collections have become common in the homes of not only rich people.
In the first half of the 19th century. Public museums began to open, becoming places for storing material, written and visual monuments of historical, cultural and artistic value. It is noteworthy that the museum business developed at a faster pace in provincial cities: Barnaul, Orenburg, Feodosia, Odessa, etc. In 1831, the Rumyantsev Museum was founded in St. Petersburg. It contained books, manuscripts, coins, and ethnographic collections. All this was collected by Count N.P. Rumyantsev and transferred to the state after his death. In 1861, the collection was transported to Moscow and served as the basis of the Rumyantsev Library (now the Russian State Library). In 1852, the art collection in the Hermitage was opened to public access.
The dissemination of knowledge was also facilitated by annual events since the late 20s of the 19th century. All-Russian industrial and agricultural exhibitions.
Literature
It was the flowering of literature that made it possible to define the first half of the 19th century. as the “golden age” of Russian culture. Writers who reflected Russian reality occupied different socio-political positions. There were various artistic styles (methods), the proponents of which held opposing beliefs. In the literature of the first half of the 19th century. laid down the fundamental principles that determined its further development: nationality, high humanistic ideals, citizenship and a sense of national identity, patriotism, the search for social justice. Literature became an important means of shaping public consciousness.
At the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. classicism gave way to sentimentalism. At the end of his creative path, the poet G. R. Derzhavin came to this artistic method. The main representative of Russian sentimentalism was the writer and historian N.M. Karamzin (the story “Poor Liza”) and others.
Russian sentimentalism did not last long. The heroic events of the War of 1812 contributed to the emergence of romanticism. It was widespread in Russia and other European countries. There were two movements in Russian romanticism. “Salon” romanticism manifested itself in the work of V. A. Zhukovsky. In ballads, he recreated the world of beliefs, knightly legends, far from reality. Another movement in romanticism was represented by poets and writers - the Decembrists (K. F. Ryleev, V. K. Kuchelbecker, D. A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky). They called for a fight against autocratic serfdom and advocated the ideals of freedom and service to the Motherland. Romanticism had a noticeable influence on the early work of A. S. Pushkin and M. Yu. Lermontov.
In the second quarter of the 19th century. Realism began to take hold in European literature. In Russia, its founder was A.S. Pushkin. After the creation of the novel “Eugene Onegin,” this artistic method became dominant. In the works of M. Yu. Lermontov, N. V. Gogol, N. A. Nekrasov, I. S. Turgenev, I. A. Goncharov, the characteristic features of realism were clearly manifested: a truthful reflection of reality in all its diversity, attention to the common man, exposure of the negative phenomena of life, deep thoughts about the fate of the Motherland and the people.
The activities of the “thick” literary magazines “Sovremennik” and “Otechestvennye zapiski” were of great importance for the development of literature. The founder of Sovremennik was A. S. Pushkin, and since 1847 it was headed by N. A. Nekrasov and V. G. Belinsky. In the 40s of the XIX century. “Domestic Notes” rallied around the most talented writers of that time - I. S. Turgenev, A. V. Koltsov, N. A. Nekrasov, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. In these magazines a new phenomenon arose for Russia - literary criticism. They became both centers of literary associations and exponents of different socio-political views. They reflected not only literary polemics, but also ideological struggle.
The development of literature took place in difficult socio-political conditions. Her constant contact with the advanced trends of social thought forced the government to apply prohibitive and repressive measures to writers. In 1826, the censorship statute, called “cast iron” by contemporaries, replaced the previous one (1804), which was more liberal. Now the censor could shred the text at his discretion, removing from it everything that seemed offensive to the autocracy and the church. “The history of our literature, according to A. I. Herzen, is either a martyrology or a register of hard labor.” A. I. Polezhaev and T. G. Shevchenko were given up as soldiers. A. I. Herzen and N. P. Ogarev were exiled for their first literary experiments. A. A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky was killed during the Caucasian War.
Theater. In the first half of the 19th century. In Russia, theatrical life entered a new phase. There were different types of theaters. Serf theaters that belonged to Russian aristocratic families (Sheremetevs, Apraksins, Yusupovs, etc.) were still widespread. There were few state theaters (Alexandrinsky and Mariinsky in St. Petersburg, Bolshoi and Maly in Moscow). They were under the petty tutelage of the administration, which constantly interfered with the repertoire and selection of actors. This slowed down theatrical creativity. Private theaters began to appear, which were either allowed or prohibited by the authorities.
Dramatic theater developed under the influence of the same trends as literature. In it at the beginning of the 19th century. Classicism and sentimentalism dominated. Later, romantic plays appeared. Works by European (F. Schiller, W. Shakespeare) and domestic authors were staged. N.V. Kukolnik, who wrote a number of historical plays, was especially popular. The satirical comedies of D. I. Fonvizin and I. A. Krylov enjoyed great success. In the 30s and 40s of the 19th century. under the influence of Russian literature, realistic traditions began to establish themselves in the theatrical repertoire. A major event in the cultural life of Russia was the production of N. V. Gogol’s play “The Inspector General”.
Talented artists - V. A. Karatygin, P. S. Mochalov, E. S. Semenova and others - laid the foundations of the Russian theater school. At the Maly Theatre, which professed realistic traditions, M. S. Shchepkin became famous in the roles of Famusov (“Woe from Wit”) and Gorodnichy (“The Inspector General”). He went down in theater history as a reformer of acting. At the Alexandrinsky Theater, realistic images of Khlestakov in “The Inspector General” and Mitrofanushka in “The Minor” were created by A. E. Martynov.
Ballet
Ballet theater art occupied a special place in the cultural life of Russia. It developed in close connection and under the influence of Russian literature. Ballets of “pure classicism” were becoming a thing of the past. They were replaced by sentimental melodramas and romantic productions. In addition to ballet divertissements that accompanied operas or had an independent character, ballets appeared in the repertoire, the plot of which was suggested by Russian literature (“Ruslan and Lyudmila”, “The Bakhchisarai Fountain”, “Prisoner of the Caucasus” by A. S. Pushkin). The libretto of the ballets used mythology, fairy tales, and events from the real history of different countries.
Ballet in Russia owes its success to the choreographer, teacher and playwright C. Didelot. He created the foundations of Russian classical ballet, using national motifs and traditions of European dance art. Under his leadership, A. S. Novitskaya, A. I. Istomina, A. A. Likhutina and others shone on the St. Petersburg stage.
Music
In the first half of the 19th century. A new page has opened in the history of Russian musical culture. Composers did not seek to borrow from the German, Italian and French schools. Centuries-old folk art created the basis for the development of a national music school. The combination of folk motifs with romanticism led to the emergence of a special genre - Russian romance (A. A. Alyabyev, A. E. Varlamov, A. L. Gurilev).
Composer M. I. Glinka occupied a special place in the history of Russian musical art. His work skillfully intertwined the classical canons of European musical culture with Russian folk melodies. The operas “A Life for the Tsar” based on the libretto by N. V. Kukolnik, “Ruslan and Lyudmila” based on the poem by A. S. Pushkin laid the foundations of Russian opera. In addition to operas, M. I. Glinka wrote romances, etudes, choruses and string quartets. He was the founder of all major genres of national classical music.
The realist and innovator A. S. Dargomyzhsky introduced everyday stories and folk song melodies into his works, and successfully developed techniques and means of musical expression in the operas “Rusalka” and “The Stone Guest”. A major representative of the romantic trend in music was the composer A. N. Verstovsky (opera “Askold’s Grave”).
Painting and sculpture
Russian fine art was also characterized by romanticism and realism. However, the officially recognized method was classicism. The Academy of Arts became a conservative and inert institution that hindered any attempts at creative freedom. She demanded strict adherence to the canons of classicism and encouraged painting on biblical and mythological subjects. Young talented Russian artists were not satisfied with the framework of academicism. Therefore, they turned to the portrait genre more often than before.
A prominent representative of romanticism in painting was O. A. Kiprensky, whose brushes include several wonderful paintings. His portrait of the young A. S. Pushkin, covered in poetic glory, is one of the best in creating a romantic image.
The realistic style was reflected in the works of V. A. Tropinin. He also painted a portrait of A.S. Pushkin. The viewer is presented with a man who is wise from life experience and not very happy. Most often, V. A. Tropinin turned to the image of people from the people (“The Lacemaker”, “Portrait of a Son”, etc.).
The artistic and ideological quest of Russian social thought and the expectation of change were reflected in the paintings of K. P. Bryullov “The Last Day of Pompeii” and A. A. Ivanov “The Appearance of Christ to the People.”
In the first half of the 19th century. Russian painting includes everyday subjects. A.G. Venetsianov was one of the first to contact him. She dedicated her paintings “On the Plowed Field”, “Zakharka”, “Morning of the Landowner” to the depiction of peasants. His traditions were continued by P. A. Fedotov. His canvases are realistic, filled with satirical content, exposing the merchant morality, life and customs of the elite of society (“Major’s Matchmaking”, “Fresh Cavalier”, etc.). Contemporaries rightly compared P. A. Fedotov in painting with N. V. Gogol in literature.
At the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. there was a rise in Russian sculpture. I. P. Martos created the first monument in Moscow - to K. Minin and D. Pozharsky on Red Square. According to the design of A. A. Monfsran, a 47-meter column was erected on Palace Square in front of the Winter Palace as a monument to Alexander I and a monument in honor of the victory in the war of 1812. B. I. Orlovsky owns the monuments to M. I. Kutuzov and M. B. Barclay de Tolly in St. Petersburg. P. K. Klodt was the author of four equestrian sculptural groups on the Anichkov Bridge and an equestrian statue of Nicholas I. F. P. Tolstoy created a series of wonderful bas-reliefs and medals dedicated to the Patriotic War of 1812.
Architecture and urban planning
Russian architecture of the first half of the 19th century. associated with the traditions of late classicism. A characteristic feature is the creation of large ensembles. This was especially evident in St. Petersburg, where many neighborhoods amaze with their unity and harmony. The Admiralty building was erected according to the design of A.D. Zakharov. The rays of St. Petersburg avenues spread out from him. The Spit of Vasilievsky Island was decorated with the Exchange building and rostral columns (architect T. de Thomon). Nevsky Prospekt acquired its completed form after the construction of the Kazan Cathedral by A. N. Voronikhin. According to the project of A. A. Montferrand, St. Isaac's Cathedral was created - the tallest building in Russia at that time. K. I. Rossi completed the formation of St. Petersburg ensembles with the buildings of the Senate, Synod, Alexandrinsky Theater and Mikhailovsky Palace. It was in the first half of the 19th century. St. Petersburg has become a true masterpiece of world architecture.
Moscow, which burned down in 1812, was also rebuilt in the traditions of classicism, but on a smaller scale than St. Petersburg. O. I. Bove designed the ensemble of Theater Square, erecting the buildings of the Maly and Bolshoi theaters. Manezhnaya Square with the buildings of the University (rebuilt by D. I. Gilardi), the Manege and the Alexander Garden (architect O. I. Bove) became a large architectural ensemble. The grandiose building of the Manege was built in honor of the fifth anniversary of the victory over Napoleon and to review the troops returning from a foreign campaign in 1817. Later, this building was used for parades, agricultural and ethnographic exhibitions, and musical concerts.
In the 30s, classicism in architecture, with its laconicism, severity of lines and forms, began to be replaced by the “Russian-Byzantine style.” K. A. Ton transformed the territory of the Kremlin by building the Grand Kremlin Palace and the building of the Armory Chamber. According to his design, the Cathedral of Christ the Savior was founded in 1839 as a symbol of deliverance from the French invasion in 1812 (Construction was completed only in 1883)
Significant transformations affected only the center of the old foothills of Russia. In general, its appearance changed little; it remained wooden and archaically built. On Red Square there were numerous shopping arcades and shops that obscured its beauty. Tverskaya Street was framed by gardens and vegetable gardens. Behind the Tverskaya Zastava (in the area of the current Belorussky railway station) there was a huge field on which hunters hunted hares. The poet P. A. Vyazemsky described Moscow at that time very figuratively:
“...here is a miracle - the lordly chambers
With a coat of arms where a noble family is crowned.
Near the hut on chicken legs
And a garden with cucumbers.”
Imitating both capitals, provincial cities were also transformed. Talented architects Ya. N. Popov, V. P. Stasov and others worked there. According to the design of V. P. Stasov, the St. Nicholas Cossack Cathedral was erected in Omsk. In Odessa, according to the project of A.I. Melnikov, an ensemble of Primorsky Boulevard was created with semicircular buildings facing the sea, and in the center with a monument to Duke Richelieu - the creator and first governor of Odessa. The ensemble was completed by a majestic staircase leading to the sea.
In general, in the first half of the 19th century. Russia has achieved impressive success in the field of culture. The world fund will forever include the works of many Russian writers, artists, sculptors, architects and composers. The process of the formation of the Russian literary language and, in general, the formation of a national culture has been completed. The traditions established in the first half of the 19th century developed and multiplied in subsequent times.
Russian culture at the beginning of the 19th century.
First half of the 19th century was marked by significant progress in Russian culture, accompanied by the development of education, science, literature and art. It reflected both the growth of self-awareness of the people and the new democratic principles that were establishing themselves in Russian life during these years. Cultural influence penetrated more and more widely into various strata of society, coming into close contact with reality and meeting the practical requirements of social life.
Education
Socio-economic development of Russian society in the first half of the 19th century. urgently demanded radical changes in the field of public education. During the reign of Alexander I, an education system was created that included at the initial stage parish one-class schools and two-class district schools, followed by four-class gymnasiums and, finally, the basis of higher education was education at universities and a few technical educational institutions.
The central links of this system were Russian universities (Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, Dorpat, etc.). Along with them, there were class noble educational institutions - lyceums, the most famous of which was the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum. The children of nobles received military education in cadet corps.
During these years, education in Russia took a significant step forward. If in the 18th century it remained a privilege of the highest noble circles, then already in the first quarter of the 19th century. became widespread among the nobility, and later among the merchants, philistines, and artisans.
The number of libraries in the country has increased significantly, among which many private ones have appeared. Newspapers and magazines began to arouse increasing interest among the reading public, the publication of which has noticeably expanded ("Northern Bee", "Gubernskie Gazette", "Bulletin of Europe", "Son of the Fatherland", etc.).
Science and technology
In the first half of the 19th century. Russian science has achieved significant success. Russian history was successfully studied. For the first time, an educated reader received an extensive, 12-volume “History of the Russian State,” written in literary language, created in 1816-1829. N.M. Karamzin. A notable contribution to Russian medieval studies was made by T.N. Granovsky, whose lectures at Moscow University had a great public resonance.
Russian philologists achieved significant success, A.Kh. Vostokov became the founder of Russian paleography, Russian and Czech Slavic scholars worked in close collaboration.
In the first half of the 19th century. Russian sailors made about 40 trips around the world, which began with the expeditions of I.F. Kruzenshtern and Yu.F. Lisyansky on the sailing ships "Nadezhda" and "Neva" (1803-1806). Undertaken in 1819-1821. F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev's expedition to the South Pole on the sloops "Vostok" and "Mirny" discovered Antarctica. In 1845 ᴦ. The Russian Geographical Society began to work,
In 1839 ᴦ. Thanks to the efforts of V.Ya. Struve, the famous exemplary astronomical observatory was opened in Pulkovo (near St. Petersburg), equipped with the largest telescope.
The works of domestic mathematicians: V.Ya. Bunyakovsky, M.V. Ostrogradsky have become world famous. A significant contribution to the development of mathematics was the creation by N.I. Lobachevsky of the so-called non-Euclidean geometry.
Russian physicists worked successfully in the field of electricity. V.V. Petrov discovered the electric arc (1802), which was of great practical importance, and worked on the problems of electrolysis. The works of E.H. Lenz were devoted to the issues of converting thermal energy into electrical energy; P.L. Schilling was the creator of the electromagnetic telegraph (1828-1832). Subsequently in 1839 ᴦ. another Russian physicist B.S. Jacobi connected the capital with Tsarskoe Selo by underground cable. Jacobi also worked hard and successfully on the creation of an electric engine; a boat with such an engine was tested on the Neva. Jacobi's workshop used another of his discoveries - electroplating - and produced sculptures and copper bas-reliefs, which, in particular, were used to decorate St. Isaac's Cathedral in St. Petersburg.
Metallurgist P.P. Anosov worked on studying the structure of metals, chemist N.N. Zinin managed to obtain aniline dyes from benzene, biologists K. Baer and C. Roulier enjoyed world fame. Russian doctors began to use anesthesia during operations (N.I. Pirogov used painkillers and antiseptics in the field), and worked in the field of blood transfusion (A.M. Filomafitsky).
There were also significant achievements in the field of technology. Its development contributed to the industrial revolution in Russia. In 1834 ᴦ. at the Vyysky plant (Ural), serf mechanics father and son E.A. and M.E. Cherepanovs built one of the world's first railways, and already in 1837. The first trains went along the St. Petersburg - Tsarskoe Selo railway. The first steamships on the Neva appeared in 1815, and in 1817-1821. they began to sail along the Kama and Volga.
Literature
Russian literature of the first half of the 19th century. - one of the most striking phenomena in the history of world culture. At the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. classicism with its rhetoric and “high style” was gradually supplanted by a new literary movement - sentimentalism. The founder of this trend in Russian literature was N.M. Karamzin. His works, revealing the world of human feelings to his contemporaries, enjoyed enormous success. The work of N.M. Karamzin played a big role in the development of the Russian literary language. It was N.M. Karamzin, in the words of V.G. Belinsky, who transformed the Russian language, removing it from the stilts of Latin construction and heavy Slavism and bringing it closer to living, natural, colloquial Russian speech."
The Patriotic War of 1812 and the rise of national self-awareness it generated gave rise to such a literary movement as romanticism. One of its most prominent representatives in Russian literature was V.A. Zhukovsky. In his works, V.A. Zhukovsky often turned to subjects inspired by folk art, translating legends and fairy tales into poetry. The active translation activity of V.A. Zhukovsky introduced Russian society to the masterpieces of world literature - the works of Homer, Ferdowsi, Schiller, Byron and others.
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The revolutionary romanticism of the Decembrist poets K.F. Ryleev and V.K. Kuchelbecker was permeated with high civic pathos.
Russian literature of the first half of the 19th century. is unusually rich in bright names. The greatest manifestation of the people's genius was the poetry and prose of A.S. Pushkin. “...through the era of Derzhavin, and then Zhukovsky,” wrote one of the outstanding representatives of Russian philosophical thought, V.V. Zenkovsky, “Pushkin comes, in which Russian creativity took its own path - not alienating the West... but already connecting himself in freedom and inspiration with the very depths of the Russian spirit, with the Russian elements." In the 30s of the XIX century. The talent of A.S. Pushkin’s younger contemporary, M.Yu. Lermontov, flourished in full bloom. Having embodied the national grief over the death of A.S. Pushkin in his poem “On the Death of a Poet,” M.Yu. Lermontov soon shared his tragic fate. The establishment of the realistic trend in Russian literature is associated with the work of A.S. Pushkin and M.Yu. Lermontov.
This trend found its vivid embodiment in the works of N.V. Gogol. His work left a huge imprint on the further development of Russian literature. Those who began their literary career in the 40s of the 19th century experienced a strong influence from N.V. Gogol. F.M. Dostoevsky, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, N.A. Nekrasov, I.S. Turgenev, I.A. Goncharov, whose names are the pride of domestic and world culture. A major event in the literary life of the late 30s and early 40s was the short creative activity of A.V. Koltsov, whose poetry went back to folk songs. The philosophical and romantic lyrics of the outstanding poet-thinker F.I. Tyutchev were saturated with a deep feeling for the Motherland. The elegies of E.A. Baratynsky became masterpieces of the Russian national genius.
A significant phenomenon in the cultural life of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. became a theater.
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The popularity of performing arts grew. The serf theater was replaced by “free” theater - state and private. However, state theaters appeared in capital cities back in the 18th century. In particular, in St. Petersburg at the beginning of the 19th century. There were several of them - the palace theater in the Hermitage, the Bolshoi and Maly theaters. In 1827 ᴦ. A circus opened in the capital, where not only circus performances were staged, but also dramatic performances. In 1832 ᴦ. In St. Petersburg, according to the design of K.I. Rossi, a drama theater building was built, equipped with the latest theatrical technology. In honor of the wife of Nicholas I, Alexandra Fedorovna, it became known as the Alexandrian Theater (now the A.S. Pushkin Theater). In 1833 ᴦ. The construction of the Mikhailovsky Theater (now the Maly Theater of Opera and Ballet) was completed. It received its name in honor of Nicholas I’s brother, Grand Duke Mikhail Pavlovich. In Moscow in 1806 ᴦ. The Maly Theater opened, and in 1825 ᴦ. The construction of the Bolshoi Theater was completed.
Such dramatic works as “Woe from Wit” by A.S. Griboyedov, “The Inspector General” by N.V. Gogol, etc. were performed on stage with great success.
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In the early 50s of the XIX century. the first plays by A.N. Ostrovsky appeared. In the 20-40s, the outstanding Russian actor M.S. Shchepkin, a friend of A.I. Herzen and N.V. Gogol, demonstrated his multifaceted talent in Moscow. Other remarkable artists also enjoyed great success with the public - V.A. Karatygin - the premier of the capital's stage, P.S. Mochalov, who reigned on the stage of the Moscow Drama Theater, etc.
Significant successes in the first half of the 19th century. achieved by the ballet theater, whose history at that time was largely connected with the names of the famous French directors Didelot and Perrault. In 1815 ᴦ. The wonderful Russian dancer A.I. Istomina made her debut on the stage of the Bolshoi Theater in St. Petersburg.
First half of the 19th century became the time of formation of the national music school in Russia. During this period, the Russian national opera was created. The creativity of M.I. Glinka made a huge contribution to the development of musical art. The operas he created “A Life for the Tsar” (in our country, for obvious reasons, it was called “Ivan Susanin” for a long time), “Ruslan and Lyudmila” put M.I. Glinka on a par with the largest composers in the world. In his operatic and symphonic works, M.I. Glinka was the founder of Russian classical music. Among the most talented composers of the first half of the 19th century. included A.A. Alyabyev - author of more than 200 romances and songs, A.N. Verstovsky. A major phenomenon in the history of Russian musical art was the work of A.S. Dargomyzhsky. His vocal works, especially romances, were a great success. Based on songs and rituals, his opera “Rusalka” was created - a lyrical musical drama. The treasury of Russian musical art includes A.S. Dargomyzhsky’s opera “The Stone Guest,” written to a text by A.S. Pushkin.
Painting. Directions in Russian painting XIX
Cultural life of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. characterized by the intensive development of fine arts. Arose in Russian painting back in the 18th century. classicism proclaimed ancient art as a role model. In the second quarter of the 19th century. it is expressed in academicism, adopted by the Academy of Arts as the only art school. By preserving classical forms, academicism brought them to the level of an immutable law and was a “government direction” in the fine arts. Representatives of academicism were F.A. Bruni, I.P. Martos, F.I. Tolstoy.
From the beginning of the 19th century. In Russian fine art, a direction such as sentimentalism is developing. However, elements of sentimentalism in the work of Russian masters were usually combined with elements of classicism or romanticism. The features of sentimentalism were most fully embodied in the works of the remarkable artist A.G. Venetsianov, who lovingly painted Central Russian village landscapes and portraits of peasants. The romantic direction of painting was embodied in the work of K.P. Bryullov, perhaps the most famous Russian artist of the first half of the 19th century. His painting “The Last Day of Pompeii” aroused the delight of his contemporaries and brought K.P. Bryullov European fame. A prominent representative of the romantic movement was O.A. Kiprensky. Having lived a short but exceptionally rich creative life, in his paintings he was able to express the best human feelings and ideas such as patriotism, humanism, and love of freedom. 30-40s of the XIX century. became the time of the birth of a new direction in Russian painting - realism. One of its founders was P.A. Fedotov. The characters of P.A. Fedotov were not heroes of antiquity, but ordinary people. He became the first artist to raise the theme of the “little man,” which later became traditional in Russian art.
A significant phenomenon in the artistic life of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. became the work of A.A. Ivanov, the outstanding marine painter I.K. Aivazovsky. A.A. Ivanov devoted many years to working on the gigantic canvas “The Appearance of Christ to the People,” investing in it deep philosophical and ethical content. The noble ideas of goodness and justice, intolerance to violence and vices, which inspired Russian artists in the first half of the 19th century, had a strong influence on the development of Russian fine art in subsequent decades.
Architecture
Development of Russian urban planning in the first half of the 19th century. stimulated the creative search of Russian architects. The main attention was still paid to construction in St. Petersburg. It was during this period that its traditional classic appearance took shape. A number of monumental ensembles are being created in the city in the style of mature classicism. In the center of the capital, on Palace Square, K.I. Rossi erected the General Staff building (1819-1829), somewhat later, according to the design of O. Montferrand, the Alexander Column was installed here (1830-1834), and in 1837-1843. A.P. Bryullov is building the Guards Corps Headquarters building. The same Rossi in 1829-18E4. creates the Senate and Synod buildings, the Mikhailovsky Palace (1819-1825), the Alexandria Theater and builds up an entire street (Teatralnaya, now Zodchego Rossi Street). In the first decade of the 19th century. in St. Petersburg, the Smolny Institute (D. Quarenghi), the Exchange building with Rostral columns (Toma de Tomon), and the Kazan Cathedral (A. N. Voronikhin) are being built. In subsequent years, St. Isaac's Cathedral (A. Montferrand) and the Main Admiralty (A.D. Zakharov) were built.
Stone construction also took place in other cities of the empire. After the fire of 1812 ᴦ. Moscow was quickly restored. In provincial and district towns, along with stone buildings, large private stone houses began to be built.
Russian culture at the beginning of the 19th century. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Russian culture at the beginning of the 19th century." 2017, 2018.
The beginning of the 19th century in Russia was marked by a cultural upsurge, called the “Golden Age”. Russian was famous throughout the world and was in many ways ahead of other European countries. Classicism was established in art, which was reflected in architecture, literature, and music.
Under Emperor Alexander I, a policy of “enlightened absolutism” was pursued, aimed at developing education, supporting industry, and patronizing the sciences and arts.
Nicholas I, who ascended the throne in 1825, pursued a policy that relied on the police and bureaucracy.
Early 19th century architecture
The victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 had a great influence on various spheres of art and public life. Therefore, Russian culture of the first half of the 19th century is distinguished by patriotic sentiments. The reflection of those glorious events can be traced in architecture. A talented architect, a native of Andrei Nikiforovich Voronikhin, became the creator of the Kazan Cathedral. It was conceived by Paul I as a similarity to St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. Voronikhin was able to successfully fit the building into the ensemble of Nevsky Prospect, central to St. Petersburg. The Kazan Cathedral, which became the memorial of the year, became the burial place of Field Marshal M. I. Kutuzov. Forty pounds of silver were spent on finishing the iconostasis, which was stolen by the French and returned by the Cossacks. The standards and banners of the French troops were kept here.
Painting
The art of portraiture developed in painting. O. A. Kiprensky is recognized as one of the significant Russian portrait artists of this era. Russian culture of the 19th century developed during the period of political upheaval that reigned in Europe, where Napoleon’s wars of conquest took place. The famous portrait of a hussar colonel by Kiprensky dates back to this period. In his portraits of women, Kiprensky conveyed the warmth and lyricism of the images. The artist sought to show people in his canvases who reflected the historical era.
