Our ancient ancestors, the Turks, were mobile, i.e. nomadic, a way of life, moving from one place of residence to another. That's why they were called nomads. Ancient written sources and historical works describing the way of life of nomads have been preserved. In some works they are called brave, courageous, united nomadic cattle breeders, brave warriors, while in others, on the contrary, they are presented as savages, barbarians, invaders of other peoples.
Why did the Turks lead a nomadic lifestyle? As mentioned above, the basis of their economy was cattle breeding. They mainly bred horses, kept large and small cattle, and camels. The animals were fed all year round. People were forced to move to a new place when old pastures were depleted. Thus, two or three times a year the camp sites changed - nomads.
To lead such a lifestyle required large spaces. Therefore, the Turks developed more and more new lands. The nomadic way of life was a unique way of protecting nature. If cattle were always in the same place, the steppe meadows would soon be completely destroyed. For the same reason, it was difficult to farm in the steppe; the thin fertile layer was quickly destroyed. As a result of the migrations, the soil did not have time to deplete, but on the contrary, by the time the meadows returned again, thick grass would again cover them.
Nomad Yurt
We all know very well that people did not always live, as we do now, in large stone apartment buildings with all the amenities. The Turks, leading a nomadic lifestyle, lived in yurts. There was little wood in the steppe, but there was an abundance of cattle, which provided wool. It is not surprising that the walls of the yurt were made of felt (pressed wool) covered with a wooden lattice frame. Two or three people could very quickly, in just an hour, assemble or disassemble a yurt. The disassembled yurt could easily be transported on horses or camels.
The location and internal structure of the yurt were strictly determined by tradition. The yurt was always installed in a flat, open, sunny place. It served the Turks not only as a home, but also as a kind of sundial. For this purpose, the dwellings of the ancient Turks were oriented with the door to the east. With this arrangement, the doors also served as an additional source of light. The fact is that there were no windows in the yurts and on warm days the doors of the dwelling stood open.
Interior decoration of a nomadic yurt
The interior space of the yurt was conventionally divided into two parts. Usually the side to the left of the entrance was considered masculine. The owner's belongings, his weapons and tools, and horse harness were stored here. The opposite side was considered female; dishes and other household utensils, women's and children's things were stored there. This division was also observed during feasts. In some yurts, special curtains were used to separate the female part from the male part.
In the very center of the yurt there was a fireplace. In the center of the vault, directly above the hearth, there was a smoke hole (dimnik), which was the only “window” of the nomadic dwelling. The walls of the yurt were decorated with felt and woolen carpets and multi-colored fabrics. Rich and prosperous families hung silk fabrics. The floor was earthen, so it was covered with felt bedding and animal skins.
The part of the yurt opposite the entrance was considered the most honorable. Family heirlooms were displayed there; old people and especially honored guests were invited to this part. The hosts usually sat with their legs crossed, and the guests were offered small stools or seated directly on the floor, on laid skins or felt mats. Yurts could also have low tables.
Rules of conduct in a yurt
The ancient Turks had their own customs and traditions related to the rules of behavior in the yurt, and everyone in the family tried to observe them. Violating them was considered bad manners, a sign of bad manners, and sometimes could even offend the owners. For example, at the entrance it was forbidden to step on the threshold or sit on it. A guest who deliberately stepped on the threshold was considered an enemy, announcing his evil intentions to the owner. The Turks tried to instill in their children a respectful attitude towards the fire of the hearth. It was forbidden to pour water, much less spit on the fire; it was forbidden to stick a knife into the fireplace, touch the fire with a knife or a sharp object, or throw garbage or rags into it. This was believed to offend the spirit of the home. It was forbidden to transfer the fire of the hearth to another yurt. It was believed that then happiness could leave the house.
Transition to a settled life
Over time, when the ancient Turks began to engage in other types of economic activities in addition to cattle breeding, their living conditions also changed. Many of them begin to lead a sedentary lifestyle. Now yurts alone were not enough for them. Other types of housing are also appearing, more consistent with a sedentary lifestyle. Using reeds or wood, they begin to build dugouts, one meter deep into the ground.
Steps made of stone or wood led into the house. If the doorway was small, then it was closed with a wooden door. Wide openings were covered with animal skins or felt blankets. The hut had bunks and beds, traditionally located along the front of the hut. The floors were earthen. They laid matting woven from bast on them. Felt mats were placed on top of the matting. Shelves were used to store dishes and other household utensils. The dugouts were illuminated by fat and oil lamps made of clay. As a rule, there was no heating in the dugouts; very rarely traces of a fireplace are found in them. Perhaps their inhabitants warmed themselves in winter with the heat of braziers.
Such a home required constant cleaning and ventilation to protect it from dampness, dust and soot. Our ancestors sought to keep not only their homes clean, but also the area surrounding the house. In Bulgar, archaeologists found small streets covered with wooden flooring.
The first wooden houses of nomads
Gradually, houses begin to be built from oak or pine logs in the form of a log house. As a rule, people of the same profession settled in the same neighborhood; craftsmen lived near their workshops. This is how settlements of potters, tanners, blacksmiths, etc. arose. The Bulgars, who were engaged in agriculture, had cellars (grain pits lined with boards) and hand mills in almost every household. They baked their own bread and other flour products. At the excavations of Bulgarian villages, archaeologists find traces of semicircular ovens in which food was prepared and the home was heated.
The tradition of dividing a home into two parts, common among nomadic peoples, was preserved at this time. The main part of the house was occupied by the front part of the house with a “tur yak” stove. The basis of the furnishings were bunks (a wide plank platform) located along the front wall. At night they slept on them, during the day, after removing the bedding, they set the table on them. Featherbeds, large pillows and quilts were stacked on one side of the bunks against the side wall. If there was a table, it was usually placed against the side wall near the window or in the partition between the windows. At this time, tables, as a rule, were used only for storing clean dishes.
Chests were used to store festive clothes and decorations. They were placed near the stove. Guests of honor were usually seated on these chests. Behind the stove was the women's half, where there were also couches. Food was prepared here during the day, and women and children slept here at night. Outsiders were prohibited from entering this part of the house. Of the men, only the husband and father-in-law, as well as, in special cases, mullahs and doctors could enter here.
Dishes. The ancient Turks used mainly wooden or clay utensils, and in more prosperous families - metal ones. Most families made clay and wooden dishes with their own hands. But gradually, with the development of crafts, craftsmen appeared who made dishes for sale. They were found both in large cities and in villages. Pottery was originally made by hand, but then the potter's wheel began to be used. The craftsmen used local raw materials - clean, well-mixed clay. Jugs, kumgans, piggy banks, dishes and even water pipes were made from clay. The dishes fired in special ovens were decorated with embossed ornaments and painted with bright colors.
Palaces of the Khans
When the Turks led a semi-nomadic lifestyle, the khan had two dwellings. Winter palace made of stone and summer yurt. Of course, the Khan's palace was distinguished by its large size and interior decoration. It had many rooms and a throne room.
In the front corner of the throne room was a luxurious royal throne, covered with expensive overseas fabrics. The left side of the royal throne was considered honorable, so during the ceremonies the khan's wife and most dear guests sat on the left hand of the khan. On the right hand of the khan were the leaders of the tribes. Guests entering the throne room, as a sign of respect, had to remove their hats and kneel, thus greeting the ruler.
During feasts, the ruler himself had to taste the dishes first, and then treat his guests in turn. He personally distributed a piece of meat to each of the guests, according to seniority.
Only after this could the feast begin. The festive feasts of the Bulgarian nobility lasted a long time. Here they read poems, competed in eloquence, sang, danced and played various musical instruments. Thus, the Turks knew how to adapt to a wide variety of living conditions. With the change in habitat, the way of life and even the types of housing changed. The love of work and loyalty to the customs and traditions of their ancestors remained unchanged.
Our ideas about nomadic life in ancient times are largely determined by the chroniclers of the past, for whom the steppe nomads were, first of all, enemies. Therefore, it is not surprising that the opposition that arose between nomadic cattle breeding and settled agriculture. However, like all opposites, they turned out to be connected with each other, at least through trade and cultural ties. Another common misconception is to consider nomadic pastoralism as a more primitive activity than agriculture. In fact, cattle breeding is a more recent phenomenon of human culture, which, no less than agriculture, requires the ability to adapt to climatic conditions.
Sedentary peoples required political and climatic stability. War and natural disasters destroyed crops. For example, Rome, just like Greece before it, rested on the backs of farmers and only then on the wallets of merchants. Greece and Rome were classical states built on the concept of stability. Steppe cultures did not leave us stone buildings, books or laws. Therefore, we do not have a complete idea of how their culture developed. The steppe was a completely different world, alien to sedentary peoples. William of Ruysbroeck wrote in the mid-12th century that the people of the steppe “pay little attention to the things of their world. They live on earth as if they are not here. They do not cultivate the soil, do not build houses, they are just wanderers passing by, the feeling that fills them from within makes them make long journeys.”
To understand nomads and their way of life, it is necessary to decide who these nomads are. There are several types of nomadism, but by nomads we will mean people who follow their herds in search of water and food. By definition, a nomad is a pastoralist who lives all year round with his herds, making periodic transitions depending on climate conditions and the availability of food for livestock. For this reason, nomads cannot create a permanent state. Nomads live in tribes or clans, their leaders receiving their status based on personal merit. Nomads usually live in small groups of several families. The connection between groups of families is quite weak, and individual families can move from one group to another without problems. The whole life of nomads revolves around caring for animals: sheep, horses, goats, camels, yaks or cattle. Nomads do not have fixed winter and summer camps; they wander without a specific route.
The Scythians and Sarmatians led a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle; they lived on a vast territory without definite boundaries. However, they had an idea of their land and could talk about the invasion. However, they did not know about land ownership. They did not have specific winter and summer camps, although some places were better suited for wintering, and others for summer stays. The Scythians' lack of concept of personal land ownership is well illustrated by Herodotus' story about Darius's unsuccessful attempt to conquer the Scythians. After a long and unsuccessful pursuit, Darius realized that the Scythians could not be conquered as a people occupying any territory. When Darius asked why the Scythians did not accept battle, the Scythian king Idanfirs replied:
“My position is this, king! I have never run away out of fear of anyone before, and now I am not running away from you. And now I do the same as I usually do in peacetime. And why I didn’t immediately enter into battle with you - I’ll explain so much. We have neither cities nor cultivated land. We are not afraid of their ruin and devastation and therefore did not engage in battle with you immediately.” (Herodotus, 4.127).
Since the Scythians had nothing to defend, they knew that the Persians would sooner or later leave without capturing their steppes.
Sedentary peoples living near the steppe kept animals, but only as a supplement to agriculture. But true pastoralists live only from their herds, sometimes helping themselves by hunting. However, nomadic peoples do not usually live in isolation. They exchange livestock products from sedentary peoples for grain, textiles and handicrafts. In addition, the nomads bought weapons, as well as luxury goods, which brightened up their difficult nomadic life. For example, the Scythians were great lovers of wine, which they bought from the Greeks from the Black Sea colonies. Strabo mentions such trade between the Greeks and Scythians when describing Tanais, a Greek colony on the Black Sea:
“It was an ordinary market, composed partly by Asian and partly European nomads, as well as those who sailed from beyond the Bosporus. Nomads brought slaves, leather and other things that nomads could obtain. And those who sailed sold clothes, wine and other fruits of civilization” (Strabo, 9.2.3).
The importance of such trade should not be underestimated, since for contemporaries the inability to conduct such trade was very painful. The Huns, having plundered Europe, eventually made peace with Rome, mainly so that trade could be carried out.
2. Explain why nomadic tribes conquered new lands.
It was natural for nomadic tribes to move, because they lived by driving cattle from place to place. Moreover, all the men of such nations were warriors, so it was not so difficult for them to conquer new lands. But the main reason is that they themselves were forced out of the places where they had previously lived by stronger tribes or a deteriorating climate, then they were forced to seize new lands to replace the lost ones.
3. How did the nomads treat the population of the lands they conquered? Give examples.
Defeated nomadic peoples were displaced or destroyed by the victorious nomads in order to take possession of their pastures (for example, such a fate befell the Huns when they were defeated by the Turks). But the nomads left the farmers on their lands and sometimes created a state out of them, headed by themselves. According to this principle (nomads are the ruling elite of a mainly agricultural state), the Avar Kaganate and the First Bulgarian Kingdom (on the Balkan Peninsula) were built. Sometimes pastoralists, under the influence of conquered peoples, themselves switched to a sedentary lifestyle (for example, this happened with the Volga Bulgars).
4. Compile a historical report about the Volga Bulgarin or the Khazar Khaganate (optional) according to the plan: 1) time of existence; 2) place on the map; 3) the main population and its occupations; 4) relations with neighboring states; 5) development of culture.
The Khazar Khaganate is one of the fragments of the Turkic Khaganate. It existed from the 7th century, when the Turkic Khaganate collapsed, until the 10th century, when it fell under the blows of Svyatoslav of Kyiv.
During its heyday, it occupied vast territories of the Ciscaucasia, the Lower and Middle Volga regions, modern Northwestern Kazakhstan, the Azov region, the eastern part of Crimea, as well as the steppes and forest-steppes of Eastern Europe up to the Dnieper.
The state was created by the Khazars (that is, the Turks), who were engaged in nomadic cattle breeding. But there were also many Arabs and Jews who moved there mainly for the sake of trade and craft. In addition, there were many conquered Slavic tribes in the state, who continued to cultivate the land as before the conquest.
The Kaganate lived off trade, but also fought with many neighbors. Thanks to his wars with the Arabs, we get most of the information about this state (from Arab sources). Wars with the Old Russian state ultimately destroyed the Khazar Kaganate.
We don’t know much about the culture of the Khazar Khaganate. But what we do know is surprising. For example, political culture. The formal ruler was the kagan, but in reality the king ruled. When the Kagan was enthroned, he was strangled and, in a semi-conscious state, he was asked how many years he was going to rule. Most likely, prophecies were expected from a person with a creature modified in this way. The Kagan was killed when the term he named passed, or when he turned forty years old, because it was believed that after this age the ruler lost his divine power.
The culture of the state is largely based on religion. Most likely, ordinary residents of the Kaganate continued to profess what their ancestors did. But the elite converted to Judaism—a rather unusual choice for the region. Moreover, it was not just Judaism, but Karaism, which is not recognized by official Judaism).
5. Why do you think the states of nomadic peoples existed for a relatively short time?
Of these states, some were initially fragile. The individual tribes were kept together only by coercion. Therefore, when the center forcing unity weakened, such states disintegrated. This happened with the Turkic Kaganate. Others were quite durable. Large cities became the centers of their economy, which connected people better than coercion. Such states were sometimes simply unlucky - they met a much more powerful enemy. A striking example can be considered Volga Bulgaria, which fell to the blows of the then invincible Mongol army.
6*. Explain what has changed in the life of nomadic peoples since the formation of their state.
It depended on the state that was formed. In some, for example, in the Turkic Kaganate, life changed almost nothing. The tribe only formally recognized the ruler and went on raids not only on its own, but also as part of the army of this ruler (although this did not cancel independent raids). That is why this state turned out to be fragile. On the other hand, there were many officials in the Khazar Kaganate, which means life became more orderly, residents had to follow more instructions.
7*. It is known that pagan beliefs were widespread among nomadic tribes. Under what circumstances did these tribes accept a new religion (Islam, Christianity, Judaism)? What did this mean?
The adoption of such a religion usually integrated the state into the system of international relations of the civilization whose religion the state accepted. In addition, life gradually changed under the influence of religion, for example, an ideology appeared, such as “all power comes from the Lord.” In this sense, it is not very clear what Karaism gave the Khazar Kaganate, because there were no other states in the region that even accepted Judaism, especially Judaism in the form of Karaism. At the same time, Karaism was not accepted by the entire population of the Kaganate, therefore a state ideology based on this belief was impossible.
Usually the decision to switch to a new religion was made by one of the strong-willed rulers for various reasons, from political to true and sincere faith. Usually he wanted to convert his entire people to a new faith; as a rule, he had to cope with pagan opposition.
