General characteristics of Russian literature. General characteristics of literature of the 19th century Summary of general characteristics of literature of the 19th century

Literature as a form of art.

Literature is not just an academic subject that provides a certain amount of knowledge, but, first of all, literature is a type of art.

Literature (from the Latin litera - letter, writing) is a type of art in which the main means of figurative reflection of life is the word.

Fiction is a type of art that is capable of most comprehensively and widely revealing the phenomena of life, showing them in movement and development.

As an art of words, fiction arose in oral folk art. Its sources were songs and folk epic tales. The word is an inexhaustible source of knowledge and an amazing means for creating artistic images. In words, in the language of any people, their history, their character, the nature of the Motherland are captured, the wisdom of centuries is concentrated. The living word is rich and generous. It has many shades. It can be menacing and gentle, instill horror and give hope. No wonder the poet Vadim Shefner said this about the word:

A word can kill, a word can save,
With a word you can lead the shelves with you.
In a word you can sell and betray and buy,
The word can be poured into striking lead.

Fiction- a type of art in which the word is the main means of figurative reflection of life. The basic concept of literature is image; with the help of images, fiction recreates entire eras in the diversity of their past, present and future: vicissitudes antiquity we learn in tragedies Sophocles And Euripides, eras Renaissance– y Shakespeare And Lope de Vega; in novels L. Tolstoy And I. Turgeneva We are faced with the moral quest of the nobles of the early 19th century.

The main means of literature, as we have already said, is the word. Through the images created by words, the author tries to captivate the reader, “include” him in the action, and make his presence in the time and space of the work “real.” Such “participation” is necessary for a complete and deeper understanding of what is written: for example, the reader worries about Tatyana in “Eugene Onegin”, tries to understand the reasons for Katerina’s actions in “The Thunderstorm” and the complex spiritual world of Natasha Rostova in “War and Peace”, the tragedy of Grigory Melekhov in "Quiet Don". It is our (“reader’s”) perception and deep experience of the fate of the heroes that indicates that literature is an art, the art of words.

Poetry evokes a special emotional reaction in the human soul. Poetry is voluminous and multifaceted in terms of thematic plan: poetry does not mean “poems about love”, these are works on different topics - and intimate, philosophical, military and others. The reader is not left indifferent by the sincere and confessional lines of A. Akhmatova, M. Tsvetaeva, the immortal words of A. Tvardovsky, the philosophical reflections of B. Pasternak and O. Mandelstam, etc.

Fiction can be considered the most versatile form of art: for example, V. Surikov’s wonderful painting “The Morning of the Streltsy Execution” needs historical commentary, but A. Tolstoy’s novel “Peter I” does not: it conveys the breath of the era in the details of everyday life and human relationships.

The fundamental basis of dramatic theater is fiction. National theaters were created on the basis of the works of Shakespeare, Ostrovsky, Gogol, Chekhov, Ibsen, Shaw and others. The literary text served to create the art of opera: the greatest geniuses Tchaikovsky and Mussorgsky, when creating their operas, turned to Pushkin’s texts (“Eugene Onegin”, “The Queen of Spades”, "Boris Godunov")

Films are created based on the text - the script. Many of them are film adaptations of works of art (“The Master and Margarita” and “The Idiot” by V. Bortko, “War and Peace” by S. Bondarchuk).

Fiction is closely connected with society, with its movement towards a humanistic ideal. Literature is the focus of socio-historical experience and personal experience in mastering the world around us. It helps to establish a connection between generations, to form, develop and strengthen a scale of values.

Literature in society performs several functions: educational(study of the surrounding world), aesthetic(cultivating a sense of beauty), heuristic(“discovery of the world”), communicative(dialogue “author-reader”), etc.

As we see, literature is deservedly named a leader among other types of art due to its significance for the development of both an individual person and all of humanity - both in a specific era and in a global sense.

Thus, words in human speech and in fiction do not live separately. They are united and coordinated by thought, the idea of ​​a work, and animated by human speech. A simple, familiar human word. But with the power of his talent, like a magic wand, a writer or poet turns the word to us in an unexpected way, forcing us to feel, think, and empathize.

Art is a great wizard and a kind of time machine. Any writer, observing, studying life, embodies with the help of words everything that he saw, felt, and understood. Literature has the special power of educating humanity in a person. It enriches us with very special knowledge - knowledge about people, about their inner world. Literature as the art of words has an amazing ability to influence the minds and hearts of people and helps to reveal the true beauty of the human soul.

General characteristics of literature of the 19th century.

The 19th century is called the “Golden Age” of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. We should not forget that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin.

But the 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the emergence of romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. The poetic works of poets E.A. come to the fore. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykova. The creativity of F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed. However, the central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.

A.S. Pushkin began his ascent to the literary Olympus with the poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila” in 1920. And his novel in verse “Eugene Onegin” was called an encyclopedia of Russian life. Romantic poems by A.S. Pushkin’s “The Bronze Horseman” (1833), “The Bakhchisarai Fountain”, and “The Gypsies” ushered in the era of Russian romanticism. Many poets and writers considered A.S. Pushkin their teacher and continued the traditions of creating literary works laid down by him. One of these poets was M.Yu. Lermontov. His romantic poem “Mtsyri”, the poetic story “Demon”, and many romantic poems are known. It is interesting that Russian poetry of the 19th century was closely connected with the socio-political life of the country. Poets tried to comprehend the idea of ​​their special purpose. The poet in Russia was considered a conductor of divine truth, a prophet. The poets called on the authorities to listen to their words. Vivid examples of understanding the role of the poet and influence on the political life of the country are the poems of A.S. Pushkin “The Prophet”, ode “Liberty”, “Poet and the Crowd”, poem by M.Yu. Lermontov “On the Death of a Poet” and many others.

Along with poetry, prose began to develop. Prose writers of the beginning of the century were influenced by the English historical novels of W. Scott, the translations of which were extremely popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with the prose works of A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Pushkin, under the influence of English historical novels, creates the story “The Captain's Daughter”, where the action takes place against the backdrop of grandiose historical events: during the Pugachev rebellion. A.S. Pushkin did a colossal amount of work exploring this historical period. This work was largely political in nature and was aimed at those in power.

A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol outlined the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of “superfluous man”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called “little man” type, which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story “The Overcoat”, as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story “The Station Agent”.
Literature inherited its journalistic and satirical character from the 18th century. In the prose poem by N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls" the writer in a sharp satirical manner shows a swindler who buys up dead souls, various types of landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices (the influence of classicism is evident). The comedy “The Inspector General” is based on the same plan. The works of A. S. Pushkin are also full of satirical images. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict the vices and shortcomings of Russian society is a characteristic feature of all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical tendency in a grotesque form. Examples of grotesque satire are the works of N.V. Gogol “The Nose”, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin “Gentlemen Golovlevs”, “The History of a City”.

Since the mid-19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which was created against the backdrop of the tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis of the serfdom system is brewing, and there are strong contradictions between the authorities and the common people. There is an urgent need to create realistic literature that is acutely responsive to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V.G. Belinsky denotes a new realistic direction in literature. His position is developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westerners and Slavophiles about the paths of historical development of Russia.

Writers turn to socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. His works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. Socio-political and philosophical issues predominate. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.

The development of poetry subsides somewhat. It is worth noting the poetic works of Nekrasov, who was the first to introduce social issues into poetry. His poem “Who can live well in Rus'? ", as well as many poems that reflect on the difficult and hopeless life of the people.

The literary process of the late 19th century revealed the names of N.S. Leskov, A.N. Ostrovsky A.P. Chekhov. The latter proved himself to be a master of the small literary genre - the story, as well as an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky.

The end of the 19th century was marked by the emergence of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realistic tradition began to fade away. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature, the distinctive features of which were mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence developed into symbolism. This opens a new page in the history of Russian literature.

Related information.

8. Main trends in the development of Russian literature in 1810-1830.

Characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century.

The French Revolution of 1789-1794 is rightly considered the starting point of the new historical era. New mentalities gave rise to profound changes in the structure of Russian literature. The focus was on the inner world of man and his complex relationship with the outside world: the people, the country, history, and one’s destiny. Increased interest in human emotional experiences led to the emergence of the phenomenon of the lyrical hero, who radically changed the poetics of classicism, violated stable genres, mixed styles, and deformed the boundaries between poetry and prose, literature and reality.

Literature has new tasks. Literature faced the need to develop poetic forms “that would be traditional and national, on the one hand, and capable of expressing individual feelings on the other.”

The main ideas of the spiritual quest of Russian literature of this period, as defined by Yu.M. Lotman, there were ideas of personality and nationality. The 19th century began with the awareness of the individual and the people as two different and opposing, irreconcilable principles; a person’s personal aspirations and his natural basis contradict each other.

Features of the development of Russian literature in the 1810-1830s.

Advanced Russian literature of the 10-30s of the 19th century developed in the fight against serfdom and autocracy, continuing the liberation traditions of the great Radishchev.

With the development of the revolutionary movement of the Decembrists, with the advent of Pushkin, Russian literature entered a new period in its history, which Belinsky rightly called Pushkin period. The patriotic and liberation ideas characteristic of previous advanced Russian literature were raised to a new, high level. The best Russian writers “following Radishchev” (Griboedov, Pushkin) sang of freedom, patriotic devotion to the homeland and people, angrily denounced the despotism of the autocracy, boldly revealed the essence of the serfdom system and advocated its destruction.

The powerful rise of national consciousness caused by 1812 and the development of the liberation movement was the stimulus for further democratization of literature. Along with images of the best people from the nobility, images of people from the lower social classes who embodied the remarkable features of the Russian national character. The pinnacle of this process is the creation by Pushkin in the 30s image of the leader of the peasant uprising Emelyan Pugachev.

The process itself statements of realism in Russian literature of the 20-30s was very complex and took place in a struggle that took on acute forms. The beginning of the Pushkin period was marked by the emergence and development of progressive romanticism in literature, inspired by poets and writers of the Decembrist circle and led by Pushkin. The principles of realism embedded in Pushkin’s work were developed by his great successors - Gogol and Lermontov, and then raised to an even higher level by revolutionary democrats and strengthened in the fight against all kinds of reactionary trends by a whole galaxy of advanced Russian writers.

The main directions of Russian literature of the first half of the 10th centuryIHv.

For Russian literature of the first half of the 19th century. characterized by rapid changes in artistic directions. The dominant aesthetic principles managed to transform several times during the life of one generation. The final chord of development classicism a play appeared in Russian literature A. S. Griboedova “Woe from Wit”(1823), in which the traditions of classical comedy of the 18th century. are combined, like those of D.I. Fonvizin, with the features of emerging realism. At the beginning of the century, a romanticism- a movement in literature and art, which is characterized by a special interest in an extraordinary personality, a lonely Hero, opposing himself and the world of his soul to the surrounding world. Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky is considered the creator of Russian romanticism(1783–1852), a poet whose works full of melancholy, folk motifs and mystical images (ballads “Lyudmila” 1808, “Svetlana” 1812) became examples of the style of new literature. The early works of Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin (1799–1837) and Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov (1814–1841) cannot be called anything other than romantic. Pushkin is one of those writers whose creative path was marked by turning to various artistic directions. As has already been said, the early Pushkin is a romantic; in his works one can even detect some influence of sentimentalism. At the same time, he is considered the founder of Russian realism. In addition to Onegin, outstanding examples of realism in the works of A. S. Pushkin are the historical drama Boris Godunov, the stories The Captain's Daughter, and Dubrovsky.

Lermontov's early works are mainly love lyrics. However, over time, his poetry, along with the theme of tragic, unhappy love, includes civil themes. He became famous for his poem “On the Death of a Poet,” dedicated to the death of A. S. Pushkin. It was followed by “Motherland” and “Borodino”. Like his great predecessor, M. Yu. Lermontov combined romanticism and realism in his work. The poetry of romantic loneliness and opposition to the world is reflected in the poems “Mtsyri” and “Demon”. The novel “A Hero of Our Time” is considered the pinnacle of Lermontov’s realism. The dramaturgy of M. Yu. Lermontov is represented by the play “Masquerade”, written in 1835.

The further development of literature was associated with the strengthening positions of realism. An important milestone in this process was creativity Nikolai Vasilievich Gogol(1809–1852). He is considered the first writer of the so-called “natural school” in Russian literature, that is, the movement that is now commonly called “critical realism.” These include colorful sketches of the life of Little Russian landowners in the stories “Mirgorod”, and filled with fantastic and fairy-tale motifs of Ukrainian folklore “Evenings on a farm near Dikanka”, and the mystical “Petersburg Stories” in which the grotesque, fantasy (“Nose”) are combined with a piercingly realistic image the life of a “little man” (“The Overcoat”), crushed by life.

Of particular importance, which acquired in the first half of the 19th century. literature, led to the emergence literary criticism as an independent genre. The highest achievements in this field are associated with the name Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky(1811–1848), the significance of whose work goes far beyond narrow literary issues. Largely thanks to V. G. Belinsky, literary criticism in Russia became a space for ideological struggle, a forum at which the most important issues in the life of society were discussed, a platform from which advanced ideas went to the masses.

Literary movement 1800-1830s

The changes in public consciousness were significant: spiritual values ​​rapidly moved from the sphere of autocracy to the sphere of a specific private person. They ceased to act as abstract demands located outside of man, as was the case in philosophy and literature of the 18th century, but became the property of the individual, who felt the interests of the state as their own interests. The abstract concept of the state, personified in autocracy, was becoming a thing of the past. The coloring of public concepts with personal feelings and the filling of the personal world with public emotions have become a sign of the times.

All this predetermined the victory of romantic sentiments in life and in literature. At the same time, the ideas of the Enlightenment that had not disappeared from Russian reality were interpreted romantically.

Romanticism in Russia went through several stages of development:

1810s - the emergence and formation of psychological trends; leading poets Zhukovsky and Batyushkov;

1820s - the emergence and formation of a civil, or social, movement in the poetry of F.N. Glinka, P.A. Katenina, K.F. Ryleeva, V.K. Kuchelbecker, A. A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky; the maturity of psychological romanticism, in which the main figures were A.S. Pushkin, E.A. Baratynsky, P.A. Vyazemsky, N.M. Languages;

1830s - the emergence of a philosophical movement in the poetry of Baratynsky, poets of wisdom, Tyutchev, in the prose of V.F. Odoevsky; the penetration of romanticism into prose and its widespread dissemination in the genre of stories; the flourishing of romanticism in Lermontov’s work and signs of crisis: the dominance of epigonic (imitative) poetry, Benediktov’s lyrics, “Caucasian” (“eastern”) stories by A.A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky;

1840s - the decline of romanticism, its displacement from the foreground of literature; From an active subject of the literary process, romanticism is increasingly turning into its object, becoming the subject of artistic depiction and analysis.

The division of romanticism into various movements took place according to the following criteria:

To psychological current Russian romanticism belongs to the romantics who professed the ideas of self-education and self-improvement of the individual as the surest way to transform reality and man;

To current of civil or social, Romanticism includes the romantics, who believed that a person is brought up primarily in social, public life, and, therefore, he is intended for civic activity;

To philosophical trend Russian romanticism includes romantics who believed that man’s place in the world is predetermined from above, his lot is destined in heaven and depends entirely on the general laws of the universe, and not at all on social and psychological reasons. Between there are no impenetrable boundaries between these movements, and the differences are relative: poets of different movements not only polemicize, but also interact with each other.

Initially, romanticism wins in the poetry of Zhukovsky and Batyushkov, which was due to:

Karamzin reform of the literary language;

By crossing the poetic principles of “sentimental” literature with the principles of “light poetry”;

Discussions on the problems of literary language, which opened and cleared the way for romanticism.

Introduction

The first literature lesson in 10th grade is introductory. On it, the teacher will have to solve two problems:

• to identify the level of literary development of 10th grade students, their reading range, reading interests, literary horizons;
• in the introductory lecture, characterize the historical development of Russia in the first and second half of the 19th century, give a general description of the literature of the century, identify the main stages in the development of Russian classical literature, the evolution of literary trends and genres, artistic methods, Russian literary criticism.

To solve the first problem, the teacher can conduct a frontal conversation, identifying the general level of development of the class. To determine the level of literary development of each student, you can ask them to answer the teacher’s questions in writing at home, and then process the results of the survey:

• answer the teacher’s questions, and then process the survey results:
• What works of Russian literature of the 19th century did you read this summer? Rate them using a five-point system.
• What questions posed in Russian classical literature are still relevant today?
• Which heroes of 19th century literature do you like or dislike? Give reasons for your point of view.

When preparing for a review lecture, the teacher should take into account that in order to master its content, it is necessary to develop in schoolchildren the ability to draw up an outline (outline) of the teacher’s story, record its main points, prepare various types of comparative tables, select quotes, etc.

During the lecture, the teacher dwells on the most significant features of each stage of the development of literature and can draw up a reference table with the students.

The nineteenth century in Russian literature is the most significant for Russia. In this century, A.S. began to show his creativity. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, N.V. Gogol, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, A.N. Ostrovsky. All of their works are unlike anything else and carry great meaning. Even to this day, their works are shown in schools.

All works are usually divided into two periods: the first half of the nineteenth century and the second. This is noticeable in the problems of the work and the visual means used.

What are the features of Russian literature in the nineteenth century?

The first is that A.N Ostrovsky is generally considered a reformer who brought many innovations to dramatic works. He was the first to touch upon the most exciting topics of that time. I was not afraid to write about the problems of the lower class. Also, A.N. Ostrovsky was the first to show the moral state of the soul of the heroes.

Secondly, both I.S. Turgenev is famous for his novel Fathers and Sons. He touched on the eternal themes of love, compassion, friendship and the theme of the relationship between the old generation and the new.

And, of course, this is F.M. Dostoevsky. His themes in his works are extensive. Faith in God, the problem of little people in the world, the humanity of people - he touches on all this in his works.

Thanks to the writers of the nineteenth century, today's youth can learn kindness and the most sincere feelings through the works of great people. The world was lucky that these talented people were born and lived in the nineteenth century, who gave all of humanity new food for thought, discovered new problematic topics, taught compassion for one’s neighbor and pointed out the mistakes of people: their callousness, deceit, envy, renunciation of God, humiliation of another person and their selfish motives.

Several interesting essays

• Analysis of Flaubert's work Madame Bovary essay

  Flaubert's famous work "Madame Bovary" refers to a psychological drama that depicts the life of the French province of the 20th century. The very idea for writing such a novel

• Essay based on Plastov’s painting The Fascist Flew (description)

  It's a wonderful time outside - a beautiful golden autumn. It was an ordinary day, no different from the rest. Thin birch trees stand covered with yellow leaves

• The meaning of the title of the novel The Captain's Daughter of Pushkin

  “The Captain's Daughter” is a historical story by Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin, reflecting the reign of Catherine the Great. The narration is told on behalf of Pyotr Grinev, who at the time of writing the work is quite an elderly man

• Analysis of Gaidar's work Timur and his team

  The genre is a story written for children. This work was written for a film, written for a specific film script.

One cannot argue with the fact that water is vital for humanity and all living things. Without water, all plants will die. This will lead to a lack of oxygen, the main condition for life will disappear

Target: give a general idea of ​​Russian literature of the 19th century, its main features.

Tasks:

Educational:

Study the concept of “Russian classical literature”;

Identify the main literary trends of the 19th century;

Introduce romanticism and realism as literary movements.

Educational:

Develop the ability to understand the relationship between historical events and literary works;

Develop the ability to compare literary trends;

Expand the horizons of students (era - literature - history);

Educational:

To cultivate an understanding of the importance of Russian literature in the context of world culture; a sense of pride in one’s native country and its culture.

Lesson progress:

I. Organizational moment.

II.Setting lesson goals.

The 19th century is the “golden age” of Russian literature. This is the age of Pushkin and Lermontov, Gogol and Turgenev, Dostoevsky and Tolstoy. Developing the best traditions of ancient Russian literature and literature of the 18th century, Russian literature in the 19th century reaches extraordinary heights. It goes beyond national boundaries and makes the whole of Europe, the whole world, talk about itself. Russian poets and writers are not only known and read in the West, but also learned from them.

What time was this in the history of our country? What is the artistic world of literature of this period? We will try to answer these questions during the lesson.

III.Vocabulary work.

Russian literature of the 19th century is often called classical. What do the expressions classic literature, classics, classic writer mean?

Classic -

1. antique and thereby exemplary;

2. related to the study of ancient languages ​​and literature;

3. related to classicism;

4. created by a classic, perfect, recognized, exemplary.

Classic -

1. specialist in classical philology;

2. a great figure of science, art, literature, whose creations retain the value of a generally recognized model.

Classical literature is canonized literature; exemplary, most significant.

We draw attention to the polysemy of words, the possibility of a double and more appropriate use of the word classic, to the conjugation of the meanings of the words classicism and classics.

General characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century.

All Russian literature of the 19th century can be divided into 2 periods: literature of the first half of the 19th century and the second half of the 19th century.

Today we are interested not only in the literature of this period, but also in the main historical events that took place at this time, since without a historical basis it is impossible to understand the reasons and motives for the appearance of certain works of Russian classics.

We will write down the main points of today's lecture in the form of a generalizing table, which will consist of 3 columns. It will include the name of the literary period of the 19th century, the most important historical events in Europe and Russia of this period, and a general description of the development of Russian literature for each period.

We have already named the main periods of literature of the 19th century and can begin to fill out column 2 of the table.

Implementation of homework.

Students report about the most important historical events in Europe and Russia of the 19th century, filling out 2 columns of the table.

Teacher's lecture, filling out 3 columns of the table.

IV. The concept of romanticism and realism.

We have already found out that the main trends in Russian literature of the 19th century were romanticism and realism. What kind of literary movements are these? What is their essence? How are they different from each other? We have to find out by reading the textbook articles (pp. 112, 214).

Filling out the table:

Romanticism and realism in Russian literature of the 19th century

V.Lesson summary

Russian literature of the 19th century absorbed the richest spiritual experience of humanity. She posed and tried to resolve the most important social and moral issues, proclaimed love for the world and man and hatred of all manifestations of oppression, and admired the courage and strength of the human soul. Russian literature creatively used the experience of European literatures, but did not imitate them, but created original works, the basis for which was Russian life and its problems.

VI. Homework

Prepare a story about the problems and heroes of literature of the 19th century, supporting your thoughts with examples, or a report about Russian lyric poetry of the early 19th century (optional). Illustrate the main differences between romanticism and realism.

Individual task

Prepare a written report about one of the poets of Pushkin’s time (optional).

Used literature:

1. Belyaeva N.V. Literature lessons in 9th grade: book. for the teacher / N.V. Belyaeva, O.A. Eremina. - M.: Education, 2009.
2. Literature. Grade 9: lesson plans based on the textbook by V. Ya. Korovina, I. S. Zbarsky, V. I. Korovin / author.-comp. S. B. Shadrina, - 2nd ed., stereotype. - Volgograd: Teacher, 2008.
3. Mironova Yu.S. The entire school curriculum in diagrams and tables / Yu.S. Mironov. - St. Petersburg: Trigon, 2007