Periodization of the history of world literature
Periodization of the cultural-historical process is a way of structuring it. Only depending on the definition of the system-forming element of culture can one explain the “pulsation” of a cultural-historical movement, identify and justify periods of cultural history of a certain temporal extent. The meaning of any periodization is to find the necessary help in ordering facts, understanding them, and classifying them. Periodization is introduced for the purpose of a deeper study of the dynamics of development, establishes milestones (slices of history), formalizes the process, reduces it to a diagram, abstracting from specific details. Stages of periodization of world literature:
Ancient literature (8th century BC - 3rd century AD).
Archaic period- up to 6th centuries BC. A long series of centuries of oral literature. No monuments have survived except the Iliad and the Odyssey. The roots are in the Cretan-Mycenaean culture. The Greeks knew the underlying legends from childhood. The works did not have an author, because there was no such thing. The author is a collective one. The whole value system was different, traditionality and similarity were valued (Poetus novos - insult - Cicero - Catullus). The works were arranged in hexameter.
Classical or Attic period. 5th-4th centuries BC. The formation and flourishing of Greek classical slavery. In connection with the development of personality, numerous forms of lyric and drama appear, as well as a rich prose literature consisting of the works of Greek philosophers and orators.
Hellenistic period- before the conquest of Greece by Rome, usually called Hellenistic, arises at a new stage of ancient slavery, namely large-scale slavery. Instead of policies, huge military-monarchical organizations arise. A greater differentiation of human subjective life also appears, sharply different from the simplicity, spontaneity and rigor of the classical period. Consequently, this post-classical period occupies a huge period of time - from the 3rd century BC. to 5th century AD Roman literature also belongs to it, which is why it is often called the Hellenistic-Roman period.
2) Medieval literature (5th - 13th centuries). Periodization:
The Middle Ages are divided into three main periods:
· Early Middle Ages (end of the 5th - mid-11th centuries).
· High or classical Middle Ages (mid-XI - late XV centuries).
· Late Middle Ages or early modern times (XVI-XVII centuries).
Representatives of the French Annales school put forward the idea of the “Long Middle Ages.” According to it, the Middle Ages period ends at the end of the 18th century
Characteristic features: an idea of the Divine character of truth and beauty, embodied in “visible images” - in unity, integrity, order, form; artistic mastery of real life characteristics as a direct manifestation of the Divine essence of the world or as the machinations of the devil, the manifestation of the sinful principle in man; the idea of the Divine predestination of human destiny.
Periodization of literature of the Renaissance (14th-17th centuries).
Italian literature. Petrarch- the first European humanist. Works: “Letter to Posterity”, the struggle “between Christ and Cicero”, “On the contempt of the world”, the humanistic thesis about “imitation of the ancients” and the Latin poetry of Petrarch “Africa”. Petrarch's poetic innovation in the "Book of Songs". Boccaccio- The motive of love in the works of the “Neapolitan period” “Ameto”, “The Fiesolan Nymphs”, “Elegy of the Madonna of Fiametta”. Prose - "The Decameron".
Literature of the mature Renaissance (Quattrocento). The ideals outlined in The Tale of Orpheus Poliziano. During this period, comic adaptations of knightly plots of poems took place. Pulci"Morgante", "Roland in Love" Boyardo.
Literature of the Late Renaissance (Cinquecento). The heyday of pastoralism in the 16th century. "Arcadia" Sannazzaro. Pastoral is a pan-European Renaissance genre. The flowering of Tasso's work "Jerusalem Liberated", which sets out a synthesis of ancient topica, chivalric values and Christian-Catholic ideals.
German literature presented Reuchlin’s religious and ethical views in “Letters of Dark People” as a humanistic satire on church obscurantism, as well as W. von Hutten’s “Dialogues” as an anti-clerical pamphlet. There is a reflection of the mythopoetic and natural philosophical ideas of the late Middle Ages in “folk books” about Doctor Faustus.
French literature. The development of poetry took place in the first half of the 16th century. in the works of Maro; the emergence of short story collections. The work of Rabelais is published - the novel "Gargantua and Pantagruel".
Spanish literature. The dawn of Cervantes’s creativity - the pastoral novel “Galatea”, “Edifying Novels”; adventurous short stories with a love-heroic plot; morally descriptive short stories with a picaresque plot; pastoral and picaresque elements in “philosophical” short stories. “The Wanderings of Persiles and Sichismunda” as an experience in the reform of chivalry novel.
Periodization of the literary process in England. Sidney's sonnets are published. The dawn of Spencer's creativity; synthesis of courtly values and humanistic ideas in The Faerie Queene. Development of English prose in the second half of the 16th century. "Euphues" Lily. The Dawn of Shakespeare's Work "Hamlet", "Othello", "King Lear", "Macbeth", etc.
3) Periodization of the Age of Classicism (17th century)Classicism- a literary movement that developed during the 16th – 19th centuries. It flourished in the 17th – 18th centuries. Classicism became the leading movement in French art at this time. The term means "exemplary".
Pierre Corneille (1606–1684) - French playwright, the heyday of his work occurred in the 1st half of the 17th century. His plays "Sid" (1637) and "Horace" (1640) are examples of the genre of classic tragedy. The plot of the tragedy “The Cid” is based on real events of medieval history - the main character here was Ruy Diaz, the hero of the Spanish Reconquista. Corneille uses facts from the youth of the real Sid - the story of his love and marriage.
Jean Racine (1639–1699) was a French playwright whose work flourished in the second half of the 17th century. and defines the second period of development of French classicism. In Racine's tragedies, human feelings are interpreted more complexly, and personality is understood ambiguously. Passions come to the fore; Racine very subtly depicts the psychology of the characters. His tragedies are closer to the genre of love-psychological drama. His most significant tragedies: “Berenice”, “Andromache”, “Phaedra”. The tragedy “Phaedra” (1667) is written on the basis of an ancient myth, but the author is not concerned with historical or political material, but with the tragedies of personality, crime and passion. His characters suffer themselves and cause suffering to others.
The comedy of French classicism took shape in the work of the great playwright Jean-Baptiste Molière (Poquelin) (1622–1673). Moliere had synthetic theatrical talent: he was not only a playwright, but also an actor, director of his performances, and director of the troupe. Moliere established the genre of satirical comedy, touching on social, religious issues, problems of family and marriage, literature and art in general. He believed that comedy should ridicule the evils of the times, entertaining and instructing. In a light, witty, exciting form, Moliere's comedies discussed current contemporary problems. Therefore, literary struggle often unfolded around them. The author often had to defend his plays, many of which were banned and censored. The most famous comedies of Moliere: “Tartuffe”, “Don Juan”, “The Misanthrope”, “The Miser”, “The Bourgeois in the Nobility”, “Scapin’s Tricks”, “The Imaginary Invalid”. All of them were written in the 1660s–70s.
4) Periodization of the Age of Enlightenment (18th century). The Enlightenment is a mental, ideological movement of the 18th century. It is generated by time, by bourgeois-democratic changes. The Enlightenment expressed the interests of a new social force - the third estate. Thus, this is a bourgeois and petty-bourgeois ideology that was formed during the period of preparation for bourgeois revolutions in Europe.
Early Enlightenment novel in England – represented by the works of Jonathan Swift (1667–1745) and Daniel Defoe (1660–1731). Both famous novels – “The Adventures of Robinson Crusoe” by Defoe and “Gulliver’s Travels” by Swift – describe the adventures of the main characters in a “reliable” form (diary), they contain an “island” theme, characteristic of English literature, an educational theme. But they give a different view of human nature; the works of S. Richardson, G. Fielding, J. Smollett, L. Stern. The novel genre is becoming popular and the most significant in English literature. The three most important models of the novel are presented in the works of Samuel Richardson (family novel: "Pamela", "Clarissa", "The Story of Sir Charles Grandison"), Henry Fielding ("comic epic": "The Story of Tom Jones, the Foundling", "The Story of Joseph Andrews"), Laurence Sterne (sentimental novel: "A Sentimental Journey", "The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy").
In France Diderot's most famous works: the novels “The Nun”, “Jacques the Fatalist”, the treatise “Ramo’s Nephew”, “Letter about the Blind...”. Diderot's educational program is outlined in his novel The Nun (1760). The novel is written in the 1st person, in the form of a confession by the heroine. She acts as a prosecutor. Its main quality is a sense of freedom. This is a natural feeling that is suppressed in the monastery and in society. The monastery turns into a prison for her. But a monastery is only the worst kind of society. The whole world around is built on the suppression, humiliation, oppression of man. The laws of society, just like the laws of religion, are opposed to natural laws. The natural man is nowhere free. Therefore, the situation in the novel is symbolic - a person is enclosed within four walls as if in a cage, he hits the wall, but cannot become free.
The development of sentimentalism in French literature is associated with the work of JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU. In France, the sentimental cult of feeling was also associated with social problems.
Rousseau's views are the most democratic and radical. The system of his philosophical and social views received the general definition of “Rousseauism.” He outlined his concept in the famous treatises “Discourse on the Sciences and Arts”, “Discourse on Inequality”, “On the Social Contract” (1749–1762).
Germany. The German Enlightenment developed more philosophical and theoretical problems (aesthetics, history, philosophy of culture and language). In the first half of the century, the Enlightenment developed slowly, then, on the contrary, at an accelerated pace.
1st period of Enlightenment: 1st half of the 18th century. (until the 1750s). Representative – I.K. Gottsched (1700–1766) – theorist of literature, drama, and didactician. The leading direction in this period was classicism.
2nd period – mid-18th century. (1750 – 60s) – The rise of the Enlightenment. Representatives: Lessing, Wieland, Klopstock, Winkelmann. G.E. Lessing (1729–1781). The most significant literary theorist and playwright, “the father of new German literature” (Chernyshevsky). His contribution to German culture is so significant that his time is referred to as the “era of Lessing.” The development of educational realism is associated with the name of Lessing.
Lessing criticizes classicism from the standpoint of the requirements of modern times, formulates the principles of a new German national drama, and proposes a new system of dramatic genres. He believes that the characters of the heroes should be “real”, “ordinary”, “everyday”. Theater must be truthful and have an educational effect. At the center of his own dramas is a hero defending his right to personal freedom, respect and dignity.
3rd period: 1770–80s – The late Enlightenment in the last third of the century saw rapid development in German literature; the most contradictory trends coexist and replace each other. The ideas of sentimentalism, which began to develop since the 1740s, are attracting more and more attention. During this period, two great classics of German literature worked - Friedrich Schiller (1759–1805) and Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749–1832). The two largest phenomena of German literature of this period are the STORM AND DRUG movement and the WEIMAR CLASSICS movement. The Sturm und Drang movement is a German variant of late European sentimentalism. Herder was the theoretician. It developed in 2 periods: 1) 1770s. (Herder; Goethe); 2) late 1770s–1st half. 1780s (Schiller).
Russian literature of the 19th century gave us many outstanding writers and their works - names such as Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol, Goncharov, Ostrovsky and others are on everyone’s lips. Year after year, more and more new researchers appear, both the work of individual authors and all literature of the nineteenth century as a whole. One of the main problems for scientists has been and remains the periodization of Russian literature.
The significance of Russian fiction of the 19th century
It is difficult to diminish the importance of nineteenth-century literature for all subsequent literature in our country. It is called the “Golden Age” of our poetry. It was during this period that the literary Russian language was finally formed; the bibliography of the century acquired a satirical, journalistic and psychological orientation. It was typical for literature throughout the century to depict human vices.
It should also be noted how closely Russian literature was connected with socio-political life. All changes and changes were reflected in it. Poets were called prophets, and it was customary to listen to their words. It is to the 19th century that we owe the emergence of Russian romanticism and Russian realism.
Principles of periodization of Russian literature of the 19th century
Different scholars have different views on exactly how to classify works of literature of the nineteenth century. The basic principles on which all researchers agree in one way or another include three: the first - according to chronology, the second - according to a specific author, and the third - mixed.
Chronological principle
Judging by this criterion (by the way, this principle is considered the main one), then in Russian literature of the 19th century there are seven periods:
- First quarter of the nineteenth century (before 1825).
- 30s (until 1842).
- 40s and 50s (until 1855).
- 60s (until 1868).
- 70s (until 1881).
- 80s (until 1895).
- 90s and turn of the century (until 1904).
According to this periodization of Russian literature, each period is characterized by a special genre orientation. For example, in the 20s, romanticism prevailed, in the 40s, idealism, in the 60s, practicalism, and the like. Summary data can be seen in the periodization table of Russian literature (below).
Author's principle
The first such principle of periodization of Russian literature was proposed by the famous critic V.G. Belinsky, and other researchers “caught up” with him. Belinsky relied on three authors - Lomonosov, Karamzin and Pushkin.
Some add Zhukovsky and Gogol to them, thereby covering all the most significant authors of the nineteenth century. The disadvantage of this approach is that the boundaries between the work of one and another writer are always vague and it is impossible to say exactly when Pushkin’s period ended and Gogol’s “era” began.
Mixed principle
This approach to the problem of periodization of Russian literature took into account several determining factors: its attitude to reality, attitude to spiritual life and the position of a particular author towards all this. This principle was popular mainly at the very beginning of the nineteenth century.
The difference between literature of the first half of the 19th century and the second
Relatively speaking, the literature of the nineteenth century can be divided into two parts - the literature of the first half and the literature of the second. And, even though it was only one century, there are many differences between the works. Thus, the authors who worked in the first half of the century laid the foundations of Russian classics, created universal artistic images, many of which became household names, and the works themselves were widely quoted, many phrases from them began to be actively used in speech (to this day). At this time, the formation of the literary language takes place, the principles of artistic design are laid. The works of this period are distinguished by great imagery.
In the second half of the nineteenth century, literature was directly related to the changes taking place in political life, namely with the ascension to the throne of Alexander the First. The situation in the country has changed, which has steadily led to changes in literature. She is more analytical.
Division according to Pushkin
Some researchers (of course, Pushkinists) propose a different principle for the periodization of Russian literature of the 19th century: before Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin and after him.
Without in any way detracting from the importance of Pushkin for Russian literature as a whole, we still cannot agree with this option - after all, in this way, the enormous role played in the development of Russian literature by Pushkin’s teachers - Vasily Zhukovsky, Konstantin Batyushkov, Ivan - is greatly minimized and even practically disappears. Krylov and others.
And therefore, the most reasonable principle seems to be the periodization of Russian literature, which was described very first and is the main one among researchers - that is, chronological.
The table “Periodization of Russian literature of the 19th century” presented above will help us navigate this issue.
First period
At the beginning of the century, literary societies appeared in Moscow and St. Petersburg, designed to unite authors “in search of a genre.” These years are characterized by a constant struggle between the new and the old, and this is clearly manifested in literature - throughout the entire period, different styles and trends are fighting in it - from sentimentalism (which remained leading at first) to romanticism, classicism, realism and naturalism. By the end of the period, romanticism, whose appearance is rightly associated with the work of V. Zhukovsky, regained the dominant position. The most popular genres are ballads and elegies.
At the same time, approximately in the 20s, the formation of the method of critical realism took place. Reflecting the phenomena of life, literature is filled with ideas of noble revolutionism. Thus, we can clearly see the connection between the historical and cultural process and the periodization of Russian literature.
Second period
Revolutionary-Decembrist ideas are reflected in the works of A. Pushkin and M. Lermontov. Romanticism is gradually giving way to realism, which is clearly manifested by the flourishing of N. Gogol’s work (although many still continue to work in a romantic direction). There is less and less poetry, more and more prose. A genre such as the story is actively beginning to “break through” to the top. Historical novels, drama, and lyrics are widespread.
Third period
Democratic tendencies in literature, which were just beginning to emerge in the second period, became increasingly stronger in these years. At the same time, there is a struggle between “Westerners” and “Slavophiles”, journalism is gaining momentum, which will subsequently have a huge impact on the entire historical and cultural process. The periodization of Russian literature of this stage is characterized by the continuation of revolutionary ideas, utopian socialism and the emergence of the theme of the “little man”. Writers work in the genres of social stories, socio-psychological novels, and physiological essays.
The fourth period
Democratic processes are gaining more and more strength. Democracy in journalism, the democratic movement, the struggle of democrats with liberals - the literature of this period reflects all the phenomena of life. At the same time, the ideas of the peasant revolution began to be actively promoted; such authors as L. Tolstoy, N. Leskov, F. Dostoevsky worked in a realistic vein.
Democratic stories, novels, and literary criticism are strong. The table of periodization of Russian literature (above) indicates that romantic poets also worked during this period. Among their names are A. Maikov, A. Fet, F. Tyutchev and others.
Fifth period
In these years, Russian literature of the nineteenth century is characterized by the emergence of populist ideas. Peasant life appears in the form of a certain ideal. Writers work in line with realism. Various secret revolutionary societies are “raising their heads.” The essay and short story genres were popular at this time.
Sixth period
A trend called “critical realism” appears. M. Saltykov-Shchedrin and V. Korolenko work there. The importance of the proletariat is increasing, and the ideas of Marxism are being actively promoted. Writers strive to expose social inequality in their works. In literature, instead of the “little man,” a “middle man” appears, in other words, an intellectual. Works in the genres of short stories, novels, and novels also continue to appear.
Seventh period
The main thing that happens at this time is the emergence of the literature of the proletariat thanks to the light hand of Maxim Gorky. The ideas of Marxism are becoming increasingly widespread, and critical realism is also active. At the same time, realistic literature opposes decadence. The genres remain the same, and journalism is added to them.
Thus, the periodization of Russian literature of the 19th century still remains one of the pressing issues of literary criticism. You can have different points of view on this matter, but one thing is certain - this is the most important milestone in the history of Russian and world art.
Historical and literary process - a set of generally significant changes in the literature. Literature is constantly evolving. Each era enriches art with some new artistic discoveries. The study of the patterns of development of literature constitutes the concept of “historical-literary process”. The development of the literary process is determined by the following artistic systems: creative method, style, genre, literary directions and trends.
Continuous change in literature is an obvious fact, but significant changes do not occur every year, or even every decade. As a rule, they are associated with serious historical shifts (changes in historical eras and periods, wars, revolutions associated with the entry of new social forces into the historical arena, etc.). We can identify the main stages in the development of European art, which determined the specifics of the historical and literary process: antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
The development of the historical and literary process is determined by a number of factors, among which, first of all, the historical situation (socio-political system, ideology, etc.), the influence of previous literary traditions and the artistic experience of other peoples should be noted. For example, Pushkin’s work was seriously influenced by the work of his predecessors not only in Russian literature (Derzhavin, Batyushkov, Zhukovsky and others), but also in European literature (Voltaire, Rousseau, Byron and others).
Literary process - it is a complex system of literary interactions. It represents the formation, functioning and change of various literary trends and trends.
Dictionary of literary terms. - M.: Education, 1974.
Literary direction- a stable and repeating in one or another period of the historical development of literature, a holistic and organically connected circle of the main features of literary creativity, expressed both in the nature of the selection of phenomena of reality, and in the corresponding principles for the choice of means of artistic depiction among a number of writers.
Literature. 8th grade: Educational textbook for schools and classes with in-depth study of literature, gymnasiums and lyceums. - M.: Bustard, 2000.
Literary direction- a specific historical manifestation of a productive creative method within an artistic system, as well as works created on the basis of one unproductive creative method. The creative method is the basic artistic principles of evaluation, selection and reproduction of reality in a work.
Russian literature is a great heritage of the entire Russian people. Without it, since the 19th century, world culture has been unthinkable. The historical and cultural process and periodization of Russian literature have their own logic and characteristic features. Having begun more than a thousand years ago, its phenomenon continues to develop in the time frame of our days. This will be the subject of this article. We will answer the question of what is the periodization of Russian literature (RL).
general information
At the very beginning of the story, we summarized and presented the periodization of Russian literature. The table, compactly and clearly demonstrating the main stages of its development, illustrates the development of the cultural process in Russia. Next, let's look at the information in detail.
Conclusion
Russian literature is truly capable of stirring up “good feelings.” Her potential is bottomless. From the sunny musical style of Pushkin and Balmont to the intellectually deep and imaginative representation of our virtual century by Pelevin. Fans of sentimental lyrics will enjoy Akhmatova’s work. It contains both the wisdom inherent in Tolstoy and the filigree psychologism of Dostoevsky, to whom Freud himself doffed his hat. Even among prose writers there are those whose style of artistic expression resembles poetry. These are Turgenev and Gogol. Lovers of subtle humor will discover Ilf and Petrov. Those who want to taste the adrenaline from the plots of the criminal world will open the novels of Friedrich Neznansky. Fantasy connoisseurs will not be disappointed by Vadim Panov's books.
In Russian literature, every reader can find something that will touch his soul. Good books are like friends or travel companions. They are able to console, advise, entertain, support.
periodization of the history of the Russian literary language can be built not only on the basis of those stages that the national language experiences as a result of objective processes of internal spontaneous development of its main structural elements - sound structure, grammar and vocabulary - but also on the correspondence between the stages of the historical development of language and development society, culture and literature of the people.
A.I. Gorshkov offers the following periodization:
1. Literary language Old Russian(ancient East Slavic) nationality (X - early XIV centuries);
2. Literary language of Russian ( Great Russian) nationality(XIV - mid-XVII centuries);
3. Literary language the initial era of the formation of the Russian nation(mid-17th - mid-18th centuries);
4. Literary language of the era formation of the Russian nation and national norms of the literary language(mid-18th - early 19th centuries);
5. Literary language of the Russian nation(mid-19th century - to the present day).
The patterns of development of Slavic literary languages, due to which their pre-national and national periods differ, are traced and substantiated in the report of V. V. Vinogradov, made by him at the V International Congress of Slavists in Sofia. These differences are quite noticeable and characteristic. Among the most significant should be the appearance in the national period of development of the literary language of its oral-colloquial form, which, as a means of oral public communication between members of the linguistic community, apparently was absent in the ancient era, when the written-literary form of the language was directly related to the dialectal spoken speech and contrasted with this latter.
R.I. Avanesov proposed a special periodization of the most ancient stage in the development of the Russian literary language. In a report at the VII International Congress of Slavists in Warsaw (1973), highlighting the relationship between the Old Russian (Old East Slavic) book type of language, the literary language itself and the folk dialectal language, the named scientist proposed the following chronological division of the era: XI century - first half of the 12th century; second half of the 12th century. - beginning of the 13th century; XIII - XIV centuries. This division is based on the increasingly deepening divergence, in the opinion of R.I. Avanesov, between book-written and folk-dialectal languages, taking into account the genre varieties of written monuments, which are strictly differentiated in functional terms.
The division of the history of the Russian literary language into pre-national and national periods of development is quite widely accepted by both Soviet and foreign historians of the Russian language.
As for the decisive delimitation of the era of development of the literary language of the Russian people (XIV - XVII centuries - usually called the Moscow period) from the previous time, proposed by the lectures of A.I. Gorshkov and the university program, we cannot agree with this, primarily based on the patterns of development the actual literary and written language of a given era. It is the literary language of the Moscow period that is inextricably linked with the literary development of the entire previous period. After all, we know about the unity of literature reflected by this language, that is, that ancient Russian literature of the 11th-17th centuries, in which the same literary processes are observed, the existence and rewriting of the same texts that arose back in the 11th or 12th centuries . in ancient Kyiv, and corresponded and lived in Muscovite Rus', in the north and northeast of Kyiv, and in the 14th century. (“Laurentian Chronicle”), and in the 16th century (“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”) and even in the 17th century. (“The Prayer of Daniel the Imprisoner”). The same applies to such translated works of the Kievan era as “The History of the Jewish War” by Josephus, “Alexandria” or “Devgenie’s Act”, which undoubtedly arose in the 12th - 13th centuries, while most of the lists date back to the 15th - 17th centuries . Thus, the unity of Old Russian literature throughout its development from the 11th to the 17th centuries. ensured the unity of the tradition of the Old Russian literary and written language until the middle of the 17th century.
In each of the named main periods of development of the Russian literary language, smaller sub-periods of development are distinguished. Thus, the pre-national period is divided into three sub-periods. The Kiev sub-period (from the 10th to the beginning of the 12th century) corresponds to the historical existence of a single East Slavic nation and a relatively unified Old Russian (Kievan) state. The named sub-period is easily distinguished by such a noticeable structural feature as the “fall of the deaf,” or the change of the reduced vowels ъ and ь into full vowels in strong positions and into zero sound in weak positions, which, as is known, leads to a decisive restructuring of the entire phonological system of the Old Russian national language.
The second sub-period falls from the middle of the 12th to the middle of the 14th century, when dialectal branches of a single East Slavic language noticeably manifest themselves in the literary and written language, which ultimately led to the formation of zonal varieties of Old Russian that differ from each other in terms of phonetics, morphology and vocabulary literary and written language in the era of feudal fragmentation.
The third sub-period of development of the literary - written language falls on the XIV - XVII centuries. For the northeast, this is the language of the Moscow state; in other areas of East Slavic settlement, these are the initial foundations of the subsequently developed independent national languages of the East Slavic peoples (Belarusian and Ukrainian), speaking in the 15th - 17th centuries. as the written language of the entire Lithuanian-Russian state, or “simple Russian language,” which served both future Belarusians and the ancestors of the Ukrainian people.
The national period of development of the Russian literary language can also be divided into three sub-periods. The first of them covers the middle, or second half of the 17th century, to the beginning of the 19th century. (before Pushkin's era). By this time, the phonetic and grammatical systems of the Russian national language had basically been established, but in the literary and written language traces of the previously established tradition in the forms of Church Slavonic and business Russian speech continue to be felt with sufficient force. This is a transitional sub-period, a sub-period of the gradual establishment and formation of comprehensive norms of the modern Russian literary language as the language of the nation.
The second sub-period could be called, using the successful definition outlined by V.I. Lenin, the time “from Pushkin to Gorky.” This time is from the 30s of the XIX century. until the beginning of the 20th century, more specifically, before the era of the proletarian revolution, which put an end to the rule of the landowners and the bourgeoisie, the time of development of the Russian literary language as the language of the bourgeois nation. During these years, the vocabulary of the language, which developed on the basis of a broad democratic movement, was enriched with particular intensity in connection with the flourishing of Russian literature and democratic journalism.
And finally, a third sub-period is identified in the history of the Russian literary language, beginning with the preparation and implementation of the proletarian revolution, the Soviet sub-period, which continues to this day.
7.National language -
a socio-historical category that denotes language, which is the means of communication of a nation and appears in two forms: oral and written. N. I. is formed along with the formation of a nation, being both a prerequisite and condition for its emergence and existence, on the one hand, and a result, a product of this process, on the other.
N. I. from the point of view of internal structure, it is the heir to the language of the nationality.
The understanding of a changing language (the emergence of a new language from the language of a nationality) as one and the same “subject” belongs to the general philosophical problem of variability and stability. The process of change does not exist without its opposite - relative stability, preservation of the changing object.
The concept "N. I." refers to the forms of existence of a language and represents a certain type of existence of a language, contrasted with another or other types of existence (the language of a clan, tribe, nationality), as well as other national languages (Spanish in contrast to Catalan, Russian in contrast to Ukrainian, etc.).
