The concept of a natural territorial complex

What is a natural territorial complex? “Complex” translated from Latin means “combination”, i.e. a combination of parts that make up a whole. In nature, there are combinations-plexes of 2x, 3x or more elements. Complexes consisting of all natural components are called complete natural territorial complexes (PTC). Why territorial? Because each PTC is formed as a result of long-term interaction of all components in a certain territory.

In various bodies of water - seas, oceans, rivers and lakes - there are also PCs - they are called aquatic. Each PTC occupies its own specific section of the earth’s surface and has more or less pronounced boundaries on the ground. Erosion PTCs are river valleys, gullies, ravines, etc.

The diversity of PTCs on our planet depends on the relief, rock composition and climate. An integral part of the PC is a hundred and people with their economic activities.

What determine the properties of PTC? The amount of solar heat reaching the Earth at different latitudes is not the same. Accordingly, there is a natural change of PC from north to south, manifested in the law of geographic zonation: changes in natural conditions from the poles to the equator are due to latitudinal differences in the flow of solar radiation to the Earth's surface.

But very often natural diversity manifests itself at the same geographical latitude with the same amount of solar heat. Depending on the influence of azonal (non-zonal) factors (geological structure and topography), at the same latitude there may be completely different properties and appearance of PTCs. therefore, both zonal and azonal factors participate in the formation of natural complexes

What types of PCs are there? The largest PC is the Geographic shell, i.e. the entire earth's surface, which consists of many different PTCs. All PTCs are hierarchical (from the Greek Hierarchy - “career ladder”), i.e. all PCs consist of many PTCs and can be part of larger ones.

The structure of the geographical shell can be compared to the structure of a nesting doll: the largest “matryoshka” is a geographical shell, a landscape. Smaller “matryoshka” – continents and oceans. Track. “matryoshka” is a physical-geographical country (PC, comparable in size to the East European Plain or the Ural Mountains).

Why is physical-geographical zoning carried out? Study of various PTCs, their subordination and establishment of boundaries. Identification of patterns in the spatial location of individual areas (large PTCs). Example of zoning: maps of natural zones of Russia. The study of PTC placement is of great practical importance, because human living conditions and economic activities depend on its properties.

Why can’t the integrity of the PTC be violated? Integrity is the unity of the hardware and software system, due to the close interrelation of its components; not a mechanical sum of components, but a qualitative new formation, developing as a whole and having its own characteristics. Within the PTC, all components are closely related to each other and have adapted to each other over a long period of time. When one component changes, a “domino effect” may occur, i.e. a whole chain of consequences may arise, affecting the properties of the entire natural complex

The integrity of the PC is achieved by the circulation of matter and energy. Flows of matter and heat (energy) are a mechanism that connects various parts of the PTC into one whole. Animals also play an active role in this “exchange.” Not only the components within the PTC are connected, but also the complexes themselves are interconnected.

How does the rhythm of PTC affect the rhythm of a person’s life? The frequency of certain phenomena over time depends on the supply of solar heat. This property of PTC is called rhythmicity. Knowledge of it is very important for human life and economic activity.

What is the importance of PTC stability? Resistance against various environmental influences is a property of PTCs that allows them to withstand the onslaught of various external forces, including human activity. Sudden changes in weather and climate, pest invasion, etc. lead to individual changes in components, but do not affect the integrity of the entire landscape. This is a very important PC law.

PC stability has its limits. Different PTCs have different protection capabilities. In low-stable PTCs, the slightest violations lead to irreparable consequences. With the help of knowledge of the mechanisms of sustainability, it is possible to foresee possible changes in nature and make geographical forecasts of the consequences of human economic activity in certain PTCs. If PTCs did not have stability, the household itself would be impossible. human activity.

Man in the landscape Human economic life influences the landscape. Because of this, new elements have appeared in nature, the formation of which is completely related to human life. Such elements are called anthropogenic, and the landscapes themselves are called natural-anthropogenic. Many types of natural-anthropogenic complexes are practically no different in appearance from similar natural formations.

What are the types of natural-anthropogenic landscapes? Common natural-anthropogenic landscapes: Agricultural Forestry Industrial

Why are urban and industrial landscapes especially aggressive towards the environment? Because they are sources of pollution of the surrounding landscapes and this affects over several tens of kilometers.

A cultural landscape is a natural-anthropogenic complex, deliberately created for practical use, constantly regulated and protected from adverse impacts. It must be properly cared for. The cultural landscape must be distinguished by the harmony of nature, man and economy, and a high culture of environmental management based on scientific knowledge. Example: garden landscapes.

There are practically no landscapes left in nature that have not been affected by human economic activity. Every year new formations of natural-anthropogenic landscapes are formed.

The space of a natural-territorial complex is outlined by its horizontal (more precisely, territorial) and vertical boundaries.

Issues of identifying natural-territorial complexes, putting them on the map, i.e. mapping are specifically covered in courses on landscape science, methods of field landscape research and landscape mapping. In geography, the issue of borders is especially relevant. Special monographs are dedicated to him (M.A. Likhoman, Collection "Geographical Borders", V.A. Bokov, A.M. Trofimov, etc.) and numerous articles. So, B.B. Based on functional characteristics, Rodoman distinguishes between divergent, convergent, gradient and process boundaries.

Divergent boundaries include boundaries that separate flows (of water, air, mineral matter, etc.) and direct them in different directions. They correspond to watersheds, ridges, axial zones of maximum atmospheric pressure, and other formations. Convergent boundaries, on the contrary, are located where flows converge and their convergence occurs. These include thalwegs, troughs, axial zones of minimum atmospheric pressure, etc. Gradient boundaries correspond to zones of the greatest changes in parameters, i.e. greatest gradient.

The boundaries between forest and herbaceous vegetation, the coastline, etc. can be considered as gradient. Process boundaries record a change in the process, for example, a transition from a zone of predominantly planar erosion to a zone of linear erosion. In each specific case, natural-territorial complexes have boundaries that can be classified as convergent, divergent, gradient or process.

Based on the nature of the expression of boundaries, the following types are distinguished:

1. Clear, if the width of the transition strip is much less than the length of the PTK-

2. Gradual, if the width of the transition strip is commensurate with the length of the PTC.

3. Ecotones are transitional stripes with a gradual transition from one PTC to another, when it is extremely difficult to accurately determine the location of the border of different PTCs. Such boundaries, for example, include the boundary between subalpine and alpine landscapes in the highlands of the Caucasus. So, being at an altitude of 2800 m, we can say with confidence that in the Western Caucasus these are alpine landscapes, and at an altitude of 2200 m they are subalpine. But in the altitude range of 2500-2700 m, it is extremely difficult to clearly separate the alpine landscape from the subalpine, since this altitude interval corresponds to the ecotone.

In landscape science, boundaries are also analyzed from the point of view of their shape. There are straight, wavy, sawtooth, jagged, dendritic and other boundaries. Both the Form and the severity (clearness) of boundaries are an important property of the natural-territorial complex itself.

Vertical boundaries of natural-territorial complexes

If the horizontal boundaries of natural-territorial complexes are relatively well studied, then there is still little data on the upper and lower boundaries of the NTC, and the question of where the vertical boundaries lie is still debatable. Some information about these boundaries is available in the works of A.G. Isachenko, A.D. Reteyuma, K.N. Dyakonova, V.B. Sochava and I.I. Mamai.

A.Yu. Retheum devoted a special article to the structure of the landscape and its upper boundary. He believes that the upper limit of biogeocenosis is extremely variable and depends on the type of biological cycle, the radiation balance of the surface, its roughness and meteorological conditions. In a biogeocenosis with herbaceous vegetation, it is located at a height from several tens of centimeters to several meters. In forest biogeocenoses, the same boundary passes at an altitude of several tens of meters. The upper tier of tracts is the ground level, or, as it is sometimes called, a quasi-stationary layer of air. Therefore, the height of the upper boundary of the tract ranges from several tens of meters to several hundred. Due to its size, the landscape has a much thicker layer and covers the boundary layer of the atmosphere. Fluctuations in the height of the upper boundary lie in the range of 0.8-2.0 km.

K.N. Dyakonov, for forest-tundra conditions, believes that the upper limit of the PTC should be distinguished at the level at which horizontal differences between geosystems disappear. Therefore, in facies with birch forests (more precisely, open forests), the upper boundary passes at a height of 4-5 m. These figures refer to anticyclonic weather conditions with a wind speed of 1.8 m/s in daytime conditions.

The upper limit of the manifestation of intra-local connections is at a height of 7-9 m, and therefore the border of the PTC of this rank passes at this height. To determine the lower boundary, Dyakonov selects the position of the 0° isotherm (i.e., the permafrost layer in the forest-tundra). Differences between facies are observed up to a depth of 2 m, and between tracts up to 4 m.K.N. Dyakonov argues that the upper and lower boundaries of the individual components that form the landscape are at the same time the boundaries of the manifestation of intralandscape connections.

Opposite A.Yu. Retheum and K.N. Dyakonov’s point of view is expressed by A.G. Isachenko, who writes that many atmospheric phenomena (for example, cloudiness, precipitation, etc.), regardless of the altitude at which they are formed, characterize zones, provinces, and landscapes equally. Therefore, the purely theoretical assumption that with increasing taxonomic rank of a geocomplex its upper limit in the atmosphere increases is incorrect. It would be useless to search for the upper limits of geographical units of different orders and try to divide the troposphere into parts belonging to separate facies, tracts, etc. The upper boundaries of landscapes are inherently uncertain because the properties of the air above a particular area of ​​the earth's surface are determined not only by the physical and geographical conditions of this area, but also by the influence of other landscapes, often very distant. Moreover, even if we could establish them, they would change quickly.

However, the idea of ​​increasing the power of the PTC (the distance from the upper to the lower boundary) with increasing its taxonomic rank remains attractive to this day. From the above views of scientists, it is clear that there is still no clear, unified understanding of the upper and lower boundaries of the PTC. This is not surprising, since directly near the earth’s surface, where there is an area of ​​direct contact, interaction and interpenetration of various components of nature, the maximum manifestation of physical-geographical processes and the maximum diversity of physical-geographical phenomena are observed. The earth's surface is a kind of focal point of the geographic envelope. On both sides of this surface there is a decrease in diversity. This phenomenon was well analyzed by V.A. Bokov (see "Spatio-temporal organization of geosystems", 1983).

Vertical boundaries determine a number of landscape and geophysical properties of natural territorial complexes, so we will consider the issue of their location in more detail.

Bottom line .

Landscape scientists are well aware that the horizontal boundaries of the PTC, although complex, are in some cases well deciphered by relief, in others - by vegetation or other physiognomic (visible) components. Similarly, the identification of vertical boundaries may be based on one or other factors. The art of identifying natural-territorial complexes lies precisely in the ability to detect and explain the main factors of differentiation of space.

Let us consider the position of the lower boundary of the biogeocenosis, facies, tract and landscape.

Currently, the dominant point of view is that the division (areal distribution) of the biogeocenosis in the vast majority of cases corresponds to the division of the facies (N.A. Solntsev, V.B. Sochava). By definition, biogeocenosis is a biocenosis in combination with the external environment, largely transformed by this cenosis. This environment in the underground part of the biogeocenosis corresponds to the soil, and, therefore, the lower boundary must correspond to the lower boundary of the soil. The issue of this border is still controversial. However, it is most justified to draw this line the way M.A. does. Glazovskaya, i.e. along the lower limit of distribution of the main (more than 99%) mass of roots. Quite often (but not always!) this boundary corresponds to the boundary of horizons B and C of the soil.

When determining the lower boundary of a facies, so-called “simple” and “complex” cases can be observed. With the former, drawing the boundary is not very difficult and does not require lengthy observations or calculations. The lower limit is, as it were, “visible to the naked eye.”

1. A facies boundary is the boundary between two different bedrocks (such as sandstones and limestones).

2. The facies boundary runs along the boundary of bedrock (limestone, sandstone, granite, etc.) with rocks of accumulative origin (alluvium, proluvium, colluvium, etc.).

3. The facies boundary follows the groundwater level. This refers to the deepest level during the year, and not seasonal fluctuations.

In all these cases, the boundary is well defined and is associated either with a change in geological structure, or with the groundwater level or permafrost layer. The number of these cases can be expanded, for example, if we consider the passage of the facies boundary upon contact of a thick (more than 3-4 m) weathering crust formed in past eras (for example, the red earth weathering crust of Adjara - Guria) with bedrock, etc.

However, “simple” cases are quite rare. Much more often situations arise in which drawing the lower limit causes great complications. For example, in the karst areas of Ashi and Arabika in Western Georgia, the thickness of relatively homogeneous limestones reaches 2000 m. Where should we draw the lower boundary of the facies with subalpine legume-forb meadows having an area of ​​​​several square meters? At the level of contact between carbonate rocks and other rocks? But in this case, the facies will turn out to be in the form of a column or even a needle 2000 m high, and several meters long and wide. What kind of correspondence between the dimensions of horizontal and vertical boundaries can we talk about if the height of the facies exceeds its length by almost three orders of magnitude, i.e. 1000 times! Thus, drawing the boundary along the contact of carbonate and other rocks in this case is poorly justified.

Natural-territorial complex (NTC)

On the surface of the Earth, on the continents and oceans, there is a very complex network of regular combinations of basic and derivative components that form a wide variety of natural territorial complexes (NTCs). The main provisions of the doctrine of PTC in the understanding of N.A. Solntsev, one of the founders of modern landscape science, boils down to the following:

An innumerable set of PTCs forms a hierarchical, that is, subordinate system from the smallest to the most simply constructed PTC on land - facies (for example, a hillside, the foot of a mountain) to the largest and extremely complexly constructed PTC - the geographical shell.

The geographic envelope is a natural complex of the highest planetary rank, found in the singular in the solar system, and only on planet Earth.

The entire huge number of PTCs can be divided into two large groups: full, which include all other components - the earth’s crust, water, air, vegetation, fauna, and incomplete, where some of the listed components are missing, for example, water (liquid in the atmosphere), or plants, or animals, or the earth's crust (for example, under a thick layer of water in the ocean).

Landscapes

Landscape- this is such a complete PTC, in the structure of which all the main components are directly involved, starting from the earth’s crust and ending with the animals inhabiting this PTC. Landscape- This is, first of all, a specific area of ​​the earth’s surface, limited by natural boundaries. It is characterized by territorial integrity, genetic unity, uniformity of geological structure, relief, climate, a uniform combination of hydrothermal conditions, soils, biocenoses (plant groupings with animals). Examples of landscapes: the valley of the Chuya River, Lake Chany, the central part of the kolochny steppe in Kulunda, etc.

In the oceans and seas one can also distinguish natural complexes - seascapes. In the process of development, areas of the shelf are isolated, which differ in soil characteristics, algae composition, and animal population.

The natural complex of oceans and seas is called aquatorial(aqua - water).

So, landscape is a natural, genetically homogeneous territorial complex. The word is German and means “view of the Earth” land – Earth, shaft – to look.

Modern geographers believe landscape- one of the main concepts of geographical science. Landscape is a natural area of ​​the earth’s surface, divided into tracts and facies. This understanding of landscape is called territorial, (Solntsev, 1962), but some geographers use the term “landscape” only as applied to a type of nature. For example, steppe landscape, mountain landscape, etc. This understanding of the landscape is called typological. Example: NSO, left bank of the Ob River, in its upper reaches. Nature, despite its apparent monotony and dullness, is very diverse: the north is a forest landscape - subtaiga space - birch-aspen-pine forests with podzolic soils, an abundance of swamps, a moderately cold continental climate, lowland terrain; the forest-steppe of northern Baraba - with ridges, a well-developed river system, fairly fertile soils - ordinary chernozems, interspersed with meadows, peat bogs. Climate - temperate continental; forest-steppe of southern Baraba - lowlands disturbed by ridges, ridges, birch forests alternating with steppes, soils - ordinary chernozem, meadow, meadow-chernozem, many lakes and swamps, etc.

It is necessary to be able to correctly highlight each landscape, show its boundaries on the map, show the area, etc.

The economic value of landscapes varies. Geographers and landscape scientists conduct practical research for collective farms, state farms, farms, cities, planning authorities, etc. Landscape maps serve as the most reliable basis for solving many practical problems. They are successfully used in the assessment of natural resources, regional planning, in the study of natural focal diseases, for hydrological purposes, land reclamation, etc.

Natural complex- a territory homogeneous in origin, history of geological development and modern composition of specific natural components. It has a single geological foundation, the same type and amount of surface and groundwater, a homogeneous soil and vegetation cover and a single biocenosis.

Natural complexes can be of different sizes. The largest natural complex is the geographical envelope of the Earth. Continents and oceans are natural complexes of the next rank. Within the continents, there are physical-geographical countries - natural complexes of the third level. The smallest natural complexes (terrains, tracts, fauna) occupy limited territories. These are hilly ridges, individual hills, their slopes; or a low-lying river valley and its individual sections: bed, floodplain, above-floodplain terraces. The smaller the natural complex, the more homogeneous its natural conditions. Natural territorial complex (NTC) – a spatio-temporal system of natural components that has a high level of organization, develops as a single whole and obeys general geographical patterns.

PTCs have a certain stability; they tend to recover after being disrupted by external agents. PTCs belong to different levels (ranks): planetary(geographical envelope), regional(landscape zone, province, separate landscape), topological(terrain, tract, facies). PTC of regional and topological levels are structural parts of the geographical shell.

Among natural systems in the human environment, geographic systems or geosystems play a special role - this concept was introduced by A. G. Isachenko.

Geosystem– these are natural-geographical unities of all possible categories, from the planetary geosystem (geographical shell) to the elementary geosystem (physical-geographical facies).

Geosystems are very different in scale, so it is completely natural to divide them according to dimensions: length, area, volume, mass, time.

Three ranks of geosystems: 1) planetary geosystem - the highest natural unity; 2) the main geosystem, the most detailed division of the geographical envelope. 3) elementary geosystems, short-lived, rapidly transforming complexes, within which the natural conditions are almost uniform. ON THE. Solntsev: "Landscape“is a genetically homogeneous natural territorial complex that has the same geological foundation, the same type of relief, the same climate and consists of a set of dynamically associated and naturally repeating primary and secondary tracts that are characteristic only of a given landscape.”

2. Definition and interpretation of the term “landscape”

The term "landscape" comes from the German meaning "view", "landscape". In Russian geography, this term was established thanks to the works of L.S. Berg and G.F. Morozov as a synonym for the natural territorial complex. It is in this sense that there are a number of definitions of landscape, one of the most complete belongs to N.A. Solntsev: "Landscape“is a genetically homogeneous natural territorial complex that has the same geological foundation, the same type of relief, the same climate and consists of a set of dynamically associated and naturally repeated in space primary and secondary tracts characteristic only of this landscape.” This definition takes into account the main features of the landscape: a) it is a territory with genetic unity. b) within its boundaries, the geological structure, relief and climate are characterized by relative homogeneity. c) each landscape differs from the other in its structure, i.e. a set of smaller PTCs that act as its structural elements. The latter are interconnected genetically and dynamically and form a single natural territorial system.

The homogeneity of the landscape is ensured by its genesis, which reflects the homogeneity of zonal (climatic) and azonal (relief, geological deposits) factors. There are three interpretations of the term “landscape”: regional, typological, general.

In accordance with regional interpretation, the landscape is understood as a specific individual PTC, as a unique complex that has a geographical name and an exact position on the map. This point of view was expressed by L.S. Berg, A.A. Grigoriev, S.V. Kalesnik, supported by N.A. Solntsev, A.G. Isachenko. The regional approach to the study of landscapes has proven to be very fruitful. Thanks to him, the following sections of landscape science were developed: landscape morphology, landscape dynamics, landscape mapping techniques, landscape taxonomy, applied landscape science.

By typological interpretation (L.S. Berg, N.A. Gvozdetsky, V.A. Dementyev) landscape is a type or type of natural territorial complex. A typological approach is necessary for medium- and small-scale mapping of PTCs of large regions. He accelerated the development of landscape classification.

General the interpretation of the term “landscape” is contained in the works of D.L. Armand and F.N. Milkova. In their understanding, landscape is synonymous with a natural territorial complex and a geographical complex. You can say: the landscape of the Russian Plain, the landscape of the Caucasus, the landscape of Polesie, the swamp landscape. This point of view is widespread in the popular scientific geographical literature.

Landscape concept

The term “landscape” is one of the basic concepts of the science of landscape science. Landschaft is a German word meaning “type of land” or “type of terrain.”

There are different points of view on the concepts in the literature landscape.

A.G. Isachenko (1980) prefers to talk about a geographical complex or, for short, a geocomplex. V.B. Sochava (1963) proposes the term "geosystem". Many researchers (D.L. Armand, F.N. Milkov) consider the term “landscape” to be synonymous with the natural-territorial complex.

What is common to all points of view is that landscape is understood as a geographical natural-territorial complex. Attempts to introduce strict content into the term “landscape” led to three different interpretations: regional (or individual), typological (a set of common typical properties inherent in different territories) and general (synonymous with the natural complex).

In the light of modern ideas about landscape, we can give the following definition: landscape is a natural-territorial complex characterized by relative unity of relief, functioning as a self-organizing system with a relatively uniform geological foundation, uniform relief, climate, uniform combination of soils, biocenoses and a certain structure, otherwise - a natural combination of its constituent morphological parts (localities, tracts, facies ).

The interrelation of natural components and lower-ranking complexes determines the landscape complex. Landscape complexes differ from each other by the presence of specific features of the interaction of components and complexes of lower rank, which arise under the influence of the leading factor shaping the landscape. Such leading factors can be relief, climate, and geological conditions.

Landscape complexes of different categories are determined by differences in the nature of the relationship, components and complexes of lower rank. F.N. Milkov (1986) distinguishes three categories that form independent taxonomic series not related to one another: regional, typological and paradynamic complexes.

Regional complexes – genetically unified, territorially integral, spatially unique landscape complexes, represented by a relatively homogeneous territory with common development features. These include physical-geographical regions, provinces, zonal areas, countries, belts, and continents. For example, the forest-steppe province of the Oka-Don Plain is characterized by certain natural features that are unique to it, and differs from other provinces.

Second category - typological. Outwardly similar, but with different development histories, landscape complexes are repeated many times from place to place, forming a single type. This is a type of tract, a type of terrain, a type of landscape, a class of landscape.

When studying typological complexes, the focus is not on the individual and individual, as in regional units, but on the general that is characteristic of a given type. Therefore, typological complexes are distinguished according to the principle of uniformity and analogy. The geography of typological complexes reveals the internal structure of regional complexes, and therefore they are called structural complexes.

Third category - paradynamic. Nearby regional or typological complexes are in close interaction. For example, a birch tree is not just adjacent to steppe or plowed landscapes, but interacts with them, retaining snow, changing humidity and air temperature in adjacent areas. Mountain and lowland landscapes closely interact with each other through climatic hydrological influences.

A special type of paradynamic complexes are paragenetic systems, which are characterized by the common origin of the complexes included in them. For example, in a paragenetic gully-gully system, all its members: runoff hollows, gullies, ravines, alluvial cone are genetically related to each other and have a common history of their development.

The landscape sphere of the Earth is composed of many nested, overlapping, interconnected landscape complexes.

Each landscape has its own structure, which changes in space and time. The nature of these changes may be periodic, cyclic and rhythmic.

TO periodic changes include phenomena that repeat at equal intervals of time, for example, flooding of floodplain landscapes of large rivers, in which the same phenomena are repeated at equal intervals of time.

Cyclic changes in the landscape are characterized by a return to an identical state after any period of time: for example, the natural regeneration (replacement) of one or another vegetation cover within a specific landscape (deforestation, plowing of steppes).

Rhythmic changes in the structure of landscapes mainly relate to qualitative modifications of its individual components. This is most clearly expressed through various processes occurring in nature (for example, mudflows, avalanches, water erosion, earthquakes, etc.), which radically change the appearance of the landscape over large areas.

Landscape complexes are a self-regulating and partly self-healing system of complexes of a lower rank, functioning under the influence of one or more leading factors. The main feature of the landscape complex is that all the components in it are closely interconnected and, as it were, adapted to each other. This is achieved by the presence of various connections in the landscape, of which direct and reverse ones predominate, ensuring simple self-regulation - a stable or close to it state in its structure.

The time for the transition of a certain landscape from one balanced state to another (new equilibrium), caused by external reasons, including human economic activity, is determined by many factors and reasons. This is, for example, the ability of a landscape to maintain its mass (matter) and energy, the degree of resistance to various influences.

Landscapes according to stability (dynamism) are divided into stable, relatively stable And successional(Demek, 1977).

Under the stable state of the landscape is understood as such a stable equilibrium in which development and its tendency to restore the previous equilibrium prevail(restoration of burnt forests, plowed grass).

Landscapes that experience significant changes in appearance and structure under the influence of minor external causes are relatively stable.(slow soil erosion).

Successional landscapes are highly modified landscapes in the course of actively occurring certain processes.(when new natural or anthropogenic modifications of landscapes are formed in place). They change their external and internal structure relatively quickly. Successional modifications of landscapes are currently caused mainly by anthropogenic influences (deforestation).

2.2. Morphological units of the landscape

In each landscape there is a natural set of different locations - areas that differ in position in the relief, shape, steepness and aspect of the slope. Due to the distribution of heat, moisture and minerals under the same zonal conditions, areas will differ in their microclimate, water, thermal, salt regime and generally homogeneous environmental conditions. Therefore, one phytocenosis and one soil difference are formed on them. As a result of the interaction of the biocenosis with the abiotic components of a particular location, an elementary geographical complex is formed, which L.S. Berg suggested calling facies.

Facies- the final stage of the physical-geographical division of the territory and at the same time the initial link in the integration of the geosystem: grouped into more complex territorial systems, facies give rise to a whole series of landscape units.

By many definitions facies - a natural-territorial complex corresponding to one relief element, with the same genesis and lithology of soil-forming rocks, one soil difference, one microclimate, moisture and biocenosis.

The facies is considered as a homogeneous geosystem and as the last stage of the physical-geographical division of the territory. Examples of facies include different exposures of the slopes of beam systems and river floodplains.

The intralandscape mosaic of facies can be considered as a consequence of transformations in the landscape, i.e. redistribution of solar heat and atmospheric moisture across locations. For example, the difference in the amounts of annual direct radiation arriving on the southern and northern slopes located in different zones is (in kcal/cm2): in the tundra - 3.3; in the forest-tundra – 13.5-16.8; in the taiga – 21.3; in the forest-steppe – 45.8; in the cold high-mountain desert - 61.4 (respectively 138, 565-703, 892, 1918, 2570 MJ/m2).

The radiation balance in the summer months (VI-VII) on the northern slopes with a steepness of 10-20° is reduced by 5-15% compared to the horizontal surface, and on the southern slopes it increases by 1-10%. Local vertical temperature gradients are hundreds and even thousands of times higher than regional (latitudinal, sectoral, altitudinal) gradients. On local slopes, the air temperature does not decrease, but increases from the foot to the watershed. Thus, on a hillside in the Lower Angara region (southern taiga) 40-50 m high, the temperature gradient in January is 6.2˚ C (Krauklis, 1979).

The intralandscape mechanism for transforming the temperature regime and atmospheric humidification, the flow of cold air down the slopes and its stagnation in local depressions, is characterized by great complexity. The flow of precipitation along slopes is one of the main factors in the diversity of moisture conditions, habitats and facies.

The redistribution of snow cover over various relief elements within the landscape is most often differentiated. The main factor here is the wind. Snow is blown from windward slopes and “redeposited” on leeward slopes. At the same time, on windward slopes the thickness of the cover decreases from the foot to the top, and on the leeward slopes, vice versa. Snow melting occurs most intensively on southern-facing slopes and accelerates as the steepness increases. With a slope of 10˚ on southern slopes the snow melts 2-8 days earlier than on flat areas, and on northern slopes the same number of days later. The depth of soil freezing, the absorption of melt water by the soil and its moistening depend on the thickness of the snow.

The difference in evaporation between the southern and northern slopes with a slope of 5° in an excessively humid climate is 45 mm, and in an arid climate – 163 mm; at a slope of 10° - 114 and 236 mm, respectively, at 20° - 350 and 460 mm (Romanova, 1977).

Favorable thermal conditions of the southern slopes determine the appearance on them of communities characteristic of the more southern landscape zone even before crossing the border of this zone. With sufficient moisture, plant communities on southern slopes have higher productivity, especially forest vegetation.

At the same time, the temperature regime in the forest is greatly leveled out, wind speed is reduced, snow cover is distributed evenly, surface runoff almost stops, and moisture evaporation decreases. Therefore, there is a smoothing out of facial differences here.

Animals can also act as a factor of intralandscape differentiation. The most typical example is the digging activity of rodents. In the steppes, emissions from burrows - marmots, butanes - form mounds up to 0.5 m high and up to 5-10 m in diameter, and subsidence under abandoned burrows leads to the formation of depressions. As a result, the soil cover becomes mosaic.

The contrast in facies locations creates the prerequisites for the development of multilateral intralandscape connections. The main flows, including the movement of moisture, are caused by gravity. The movement of water is associated with the migration of chemical elements in conjugate rows of facies, the removal of elements from some, transportation in others, and accumulation in still others. But interfacial connections are not reduced to the unilateral influence of the upstream facies on the downstream ones. The erosion network drains the interfluve facies, lowering the groundwater level; the micro- and mesoclimatic influence of reservoirs extends to coastal geosystems; Thanks to the migrations of organisms, an exchange occurs between geosystems, which does not obey the laws of gravity.

The combination of two or more facies forms more complex territorial complexes - tracts. They are most clearly expressed in conditions of dissected relief with alternating convex (positive) and concave (negative) forms of mesorelief: hills and basins, ridges and hollows, inter-gully plains and ravines, etc.

In modern terms A tract is defined as a natural-territorial complex, formed, as a rule, within one mesoform of relief, consisting of naturally combined facies, with a pronounced genetic unity.

On vast flat interfluves, where there are no contrasting forms of mesorelief, the formation of tracts is determined by differences in source rocks and distance from natural drainage lines. The last factor plays a particularly important role in the zone of excess moisture. As river valleys move away from the interfluve, the groundwater level rises, drainage becomes more difficult, and moisture stagnation increases, which affects the soil and vegetation cover.

The tract is an important intermediate stage in the geosystem hierarchy between facies and landscape.

The tracts are quite diverse in their internal (facial) structure, and therefore several tracts are distinguished according to the degree of their complexity. In areas of the watershed plain with uniform drainage conditions, suburbs, which can be defined as PTC, consisting of groups of facies on one mesorelief element, characterized by the same amount of incoming solar radiation and similar water regime. Durochishche is an intermediate unit, a group of facies identified within one tract on slopes of different exposures. Suburochistas can be identified on the slopes of ridges and hills with different steepness, on the slopes of valleys or ravines with the same illumination, etc.

Classifying natural boundaries and taking into account changes in them, especially under human influence, is a certain difficulty.

The main criteria for identifying and classifying tracts are mesorelief, substrate, moisture and drainage conditions, heat supply, which contribute to the development of a certain biocenosis.

According to A.G. Isachenko (1991), complex tracts are formed under the following conditions:

1) a large mesoform of relief with superimposed or incised mesoforms of the second order (a ravine with a bottom ravine, a ridge with hollows and ravines, a swampy basin with lakes);

2) one form of mesorelief, but lithologically heterogeneous;

3) a dominant watershed tract with small fragments of secondary tracts or individual “alien” facies: swamp, depression, karst, zoogenic (marmots), etc.;

4) double, triple tracts - a system of merged convex raised bog massifs, each of which is an independent tract.

The classification of tracts is developed on specific regional material in the process of compiling landscape maps. The starting point is taken to be a taxonomy of mesorelief forms, taking into account their genesis, morphological type and position in the local runoff system. At the next stage, the soil-forming rock is introduced into the classification. The combination of the main factors in the formation of tracts: landforms, composition of soil-forming rocks and moisture regime determines the distribution of soils and plant communities. Soils and vegetation cover are not the determining criteria for classifying tracts, but they serve as an important indexing feature.

In different landscape zones, on the same relief forms and the same parent rocks, different local climates, moisture conditions, soils and biocenoses are formed, and, therefore, these will be different tracts.

The study of natural boundaries, their classification and mapping are of great importance for the development of scientifically based agricultural organization of the territory.

The largest morphological part is terrain – a natural-territorial complex, which is a combination of tracts developed on the same geological foundation and characterized by a complex of relief forms of the same genesis.

The reasons for the isolation of areas and their internal structure are very diverse. The most typical cases:

1. Within the same landscape, there is an unequal thickness of surface sediments, i.e. variation of the geological foundation.

2. With the same genetic relief, there are areas with changing morphological characteristics of mesoforms.

3. With the same set of tracts within the boundaries of one landscape, their quantitative (areal) relationships change.

4. Extensive and complex systems of similar tracts, merging in the process of their development, for example, large systems of watershed swamps, dune ridges, karst basins.

5. Fragments (groups of tracts) of alien landscapes embedded in a given landscape can be considered as special areas. Many divisions of landscapes, distinguished under the name of localities, have a narrow regional significance and are difficult to compare with localities of other landscapes.

The morphology of mountain landscapes is most complex. In them, as on the plains, facies and tracts are distinguished. However, due to the large range of heights and contrasting exposures, the morphological units include not only the usual series of facies and mesorelief tracts, but also altitudinal categories.

Knowledge of the internal diversity of the natural landscape makes it possible to develop systems of measures (agro-hydro-forestry reclamation) that would contribute to the regulation of geochemical and biophysical processes in the landscape and maintain the high potential of land resources.

2.3. Latitudinal landscape zoning

The spherical shape of the planet Earth and its circular rotation determine the uneven distribution of energy and matter over the earth's surface, which leads to territorial differentiation of the landscape sphere. The distribution of energy is uneven both in space and time. The specific manifestations of this phenomenon are determined by the two most general geographical patterns - zonality and azonality.

Landscape zonality means a natural change in natural components and landscapes from the equator to the poles. It is based on different ratios of heat and moisture by latitude, due to planetary and cosmic reasons. The ratio of heat and moisture is the primary factor in the manifestation of zonal patterns in the distribution of water, soil, vegetation, wildlife, as well as the emergence of large natural systems of landscape zones.

The primary cause of zonality is the uneven distribution of short-wave radiation from the Sun over latitude due to the sphericity of the earth and changes in the angle of incidence of solar rays on the earth's surface. Depending on the latitude, the amount of radiant energy from the Sun varies per unit area.

The mass of the Earth also affects the nature of zonation. It allows the planet to retain an atmosphere, which serves as an important factor in the transformation and redistribution of solar energy.

An important role is played by the inclination of the earth's axis to the ecliptic plane (at an angle of about 66.5°). This determines the uneven supply of solar radiation over the seasons, which complicates the zonal distribution of heat and moisture, and exacerbates zonal contrasts; the daily rotation of the Earth, on which the deviation of moving bodies, including air masses, depends, to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern, which complicates the zonation scheme.

Heterogeneity of the Earth's surface: the presence of continents and oceans, diversity of relief, etc. – causes disruption of the uniform and regular flow of solar energy.

The consequence of the uneven latitudinal distribution of heat is the zonality of air masses, atmospheric circulation and moisture circulation. Under the influence of uneven heating, as well as evaporation from the underlying surface, air masses are formed that differ in their temperature properties, moisture content, and density. There are four main zonal types of air masses: 1) equatorial (warm and humid); 2) tropical (warm and dry); 3) boreal, or temperate latitude masses (cool and wet); 4) Arctic, and in the southern hemisphere Antarctic (cold and relatively dry).

Uneven heating and, as a result, different densities of air masses (different atmospheric pressure) cause a violation of thermodynamic equilibrium in the troposphere and the movement (circulation) of air masses.

Atmospheric circulation is a very powerful mechanism for the redistribution of heat and moisture, which smooths out zonal temperature differences on earth.

The zonality of atmospheric circulation is closely related to the zonality of moisture circulation and humidification, which affects the specifics of precipitation distribution and rhythm. The amount of precipitation in itself does not determine the moisture supply conditions of the landscape. For example, in the steppe zone, with 500 mm of annual precipitation, we can talk about insufficient moisture, and in the tundra, with 400 mm, we can talk about excess moisture. Therefore, the criterion for moisture supply is its amount, which is necessary for the optimal functioning of the ecosystem.

The best indicator of moisture demand is evaporation. Evaporation is calculated based on temperature, air humidity deficit or other parameters. The ratio of annual precipitation to annual evaporation can serve as an indicator of climatic humidification (CM). It was first developed in 1905 by G.N. Vysotsky (1962) and subsequently developed by N.N. Ivanov:

where KU is the moisture coefficient of the territory; P – precipitation per year, mm, f – evaporation per year, determined by evaporation from the surface of reservoirs, mm.

Based on the coefficient of humidification (CU) N.N. Ivanov constructed a scale for the entire landmass of the Earth and showed that the boundaries of landscape zones coincide with certain values. In accordance with the coefficients, the following zones are identified within the climatic zones according to the provision of plants with moisture (humidification zones).

Excessively wet(KU more than 1.33). Precipitation exceeds evaporation not only for the year, but also for the warm period. The zone is associated with the spread of tundra, swamp gley-podzolic soil formation.

Wet(KU 1.33-1.00). The annual amount of precipitation exceeds evaporation not only for the year, but also for the warm period. The zone covers taiga and deciduous forests on podzolic and brown forest soils.

Semi-moist(KU 1.00-0.77). Corresponds to the forest-steppe zone. A humidification coefficient of 1.00 indicates that annual precipitation and evaporation are balanced.

Semi-arid(KU 0.77-0.55) covers a typical steppe, and arid(KU 0.55-0.33) – southern.

Semi-dry zone is determined by a CU equal to 0.33-0.22 (semi-desert), dry semi-desert (CU 0.33-0.22) and very dry(KU 0.12).

The intensity of many processes depends on the ratio of heat and moisture, incl. and zonal changes in warmth and moisture from the poles to the equator. Zoning is expressed not only in the average annual amount of heat and moisture, but also in their regime, i.e. in intra-annual changes. The zonal types of precipitation regimes are varied: in the equatorial zone precipitation falls more or less evenly, but with two maxima; in subequatorial latitudes there is a pronounced summer maximum; in the Mediterranean zone there is a winter maximum; in temperate latitudes a uniform distribution with a summer maximum is characteristic.

Geographical zoning finds vivid expression in the organic world. It is no coincidence that the names of landscape zones are given according to geobotanical characteristics, since vegetation cover is the most striking external component of the landscape, which very clearly reacts to all changes in it.

Landscape zones did not arise immediately, but over many millennia, and went through a complex path of development. Their boundaries do not always coincide with soil, geobotanical and other zones. Landscape zones are heterogeneous both in latitude and longitude. Landscape horizontal zoning manifests itself differently on the Earth's surface when the boundaries of the zones deviate greatly and acquire a direction close to the meridional. Some zones turn out to be broken and expressed only in the inner or marginal parts of the continents. Such landscape zones are called azonal. They contribute to the origin of complex landscape differentiation on the earth's surface.

Within horizontal natural zones (plains), the azonality of landscapes is mainly expressed by the diversity of morphostructural features of the relief and lithology of rocks. The landscape-forming significance of these azonal factors is great. Relief especially affects the creation of climatic contrasts in the territory and, through them, the nature of the soil and vegetation cover.

Among the factors determining longitudinal landscape differentiation, the continental climate (high contrast between the warm and cold seasons of the year) is of primary importance, leaving its significant imprint on the dynamics of landscapes and the reserves of their phyto- and zoomass. The different heat capacity and reflectivity of the solid surface of land and the water column of the ocean, intense heat exchange in the ocean form different air masses - continental and sea. A continental-oceanic transfer of air masses arises, which is superimposed on the zonal circulation of the atmosphere and greatly complicates it.

The position of the territory in the system of continental-ocean atmospheric circulation becomes one of the important factors of physiographic differentiation. As one moves further inland from the ocean, the frequency of marine air masses decreases, the continental climate increases, and the amount of precipitation decreases. Therefore, two spectra of landscape zonality are formed on the globe: marine and continental (Table 3).

Table 3

Options for the spectrum of landscape zoning

The marine spectrum is most pronounced in places where the land is washed by warm oceanic movement. In the temperate latitudes of the Atlantic Ocean, due to the warm current, the ocean surface additionally receives more than 1000, and in some places more than 3000 MJ/m2. Through atmospheric circulation, sea currents have a strong influence on temperature conditions and moisture in adjacent parts of the continents. Cold currents not only lower the air temperature, but also aggravate the dryness of the climate.

Different researchers interpret the boundaries of natural zones and their number differently. This is due to the fact that landscape zones were distinguished according to particular characteristics, calling one or another subzone a zone, and vice versa.

V.M. Chupakhin (1987) provides characteristics of 10 landscape zones on the territory of the former USSR.

Arctic desert zone represented by the Arctic islands (Franz Josef Land, Severnaya Zemlya, New Siberian Islands, etc.), located at 73° N. sh., as well as the northern edge of the Taimyr Peninsula. A feature of this natural zone is permanent snow and ice cover, widespread distribution of permafrost, low temperatures, snow precipitation of 200-500 mm per year, a large number of lakes, and frequent fogs. The landscapes are treeless with a predominance of lichens and mosses. There are a lot of seabirds, polar bears, reindeer, and arctic foxes.

Tundra zone occupies space from 73 to 67° N. w. from the Kola Peninsula to Kamchatka. The zone is characterized by excessive moisture (750 mm), lack of heat, treelessness, a large number of swamps, lakes, and the development of permafrost.

Vegetation is dominated by a variety of mosses, a few types of grasses, and shrubs; animals are reindeer, arctic fox, tundra wolf, and partridge.

Sphagnum bogs and peat bogs are widespread in the forest-tundra. Waterlogging and the formation of small swamps are facilitated by a positive moisture balance and permafrost. The vegetation cover of the forest-tundra is a combination of tundra, crooked forests, swamps and meadows. Lichens and green mosses grow in dry places. Typical tundra animals in this zone are joined by ermine, weasel, and mink.

Taiga zone – the largest in area (52.5%) among the landscape zones of the territory of the former USSR. It passes at approximately 50° N. w. The width of the zone ranges from 600 to 2300 km - in the area of ​​Lake Baikal. Over such a large area, both in width and longitude, the landscape conditions in this zone are very different.

The western part of the taiga zone is a plain (Russian Plain, West Siberian Lowland). In the east it is dominated by mountainous terrain: Altai, Sayan Mountains, Transbaikal Mountains, etc. The landscapes of the taiga are dominated by podzolic and sod-podzolic soils. Coniferous trees dominate: spruce, pine, cedar, fir, larch. The area of ​​meadows is approximately 6% of the zone area. An integral part of the landscape are large and small swamps. The predominant mammals are elk, brown bear, lynx, sable, weasel, and roe deer.

Within the taiga zone there are three subzones: northern, middle and southern taiga.

In the northern taiga, large areas are occupied by raised swamps and sparse forests. In the southern taiga the forest is three-tiered and is well developed in Western Siberia and on the Russian Plain. In the middle taiga, green-dense types of coniferous forests predominate.

Mixed forest zone of the Russian Plain(Vyborg-St. Petersburg-Yaroslavl-Ivanovo-Nizhny Novgorod) is characterized by a warm and humid climate compared to the taiga with many high and lowland swamps. The vegetation cover includes mixed plantings of European spruce, common oak, linden, ash, elm, and maple. The average percentage of forest cover does not exceed 3%. The fauna is dominated by Western European species (roe deer, marten, European mink, bison are preserved). Taiga animal species are widespread: brown bear, fox, wolf, elk, etc.

Mixed forest zone of the Far East The relief is represented by medium-altitude mountain ranges (Sikhote-Alin, Bureinsky) and plains (Yeysko-Bureinsky and Prikhankai). The climate is monsoon with very dry winters and warm, humid summers. The duration of the frost-free period is 120-165 days, the temperature in January is minus 5-12 °C, in July - plus 16-19 °C, precipitation per year is 600-700 mm. Mixed forests dominate. The dominant coniferous trees are Korean cedar, Sayan spruce, and fir; Deciduous trees include Amur linden, yellow birch, Mongolian oak, small-leaved maple, etc. Spring wheat, rye, potatoes, vegetables, melons, rice, and sugar beets are grown here.

Forest-steppe zone It is characterized by the alternation of forest vegetation with steppe vegetation on watersheds and stretches in a continuous strip from the foothills of the Carpathians to Altai. The surface of the territory is dissected by a dense river network and ravines. Winter is mild: in January in Moldova and Ukraine - minus 5 °C, in Kazakhstan - minus 19 °C. In winter, a stable snow cover of up to 50-70 cm is formed. The temperature in July reaches 18-19°C. The growing season lasts 160-170 days.

The main natural wealth of the forest-steppe zone is land resources. The conditions of the forest-steppe zone make it possible to grow grain, industrial crops, and sugar beets. This is an area of ​​developed dairy and meat cattle breeding, pig farming, and poultry farming.

Steppe zone is located south of the forest-steppe, stretching from Moldova to Altai, characterized by treeless watersheds, predominant cereal vegetation on ordinary and southern chernozems. The steppe zone is dominated by flat terrain with a wide development of ravines, gullies, large and small depressions, and river valleys. The climate of the steppes is continental, increasing to the east, where the influence of the Siberian anticyclone increases. It is expressed in large annual and daily fluctuations. Summer is hot, in July 18-22°C. The best varieties of wheat, corn, sunflower, millet, vegetable and fruit crops are cultivated in the steppe expanses. Almost all arable land in the zone is plowed. The problem of combating drought, wind and water erosion is acute here.

Semi-desert zone stretches from Kalmykia to the eastern borders of Kazakhstan, covering the northern half of the Caspian lowland, Mugodzhary, the southern part of the Turgai country and the Kazakh small hills. The climate is dry with cold winters and hot summers. The amount of precipitation per year does not exceed 150-250 mm (4-8 times less evaporation), the soils are light chestnut and brown, often saline with sparse vegetation. The natural conditions of the semi-desert are more favorable for the development of sheep, horse breeding and beef cattle breeding.

Desert zone within the former USSR it stretches in a wide (up to 1000 km) strip from the Volga and the Caspian Sea to the foothills of the Central Asian mountains. It is characterized by a very small amount of precipitation (80-150 mm). Annual precipitation is 10-12 times less than evaporation. Sandy massifs occupy huge areas and are represented by dunes, ridges and hummocky sands. The soils are grey-brown clayey and sandy. The vegetation is very sparse and is represented by wormwood, sand acacia, saxaul, teresken and abundant ephemerals. Among the animals, the most numerous are different species of lizards, snakes, turtles, rodents, and there are saigas, goitered gazelles, and kulans. With irrigation, cotton, vegetables, grapes, etc. are grown. The desert zone is a developed area of ​​desert-pasture transhumance sheep breeding and beef cattle breeding.

Subtropical zone within the former USSR, it is developed along the coasts of the Black and Caspian seas, where it is represented by separate regions: the Colchis and Lankaran lowlands, the lower reaches of the river valley. Artek, southern regions of Tajikistan and Surkhan-Darya region in Uzbekistan. There are dry and humid subtropics.

Dry subtropics occupy the southern coast of Crimea, the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus from Novorossiysk to Tuapse, the lower reaches of Artek, Vakhsh, Surkhan-Darya. Dry subtropics are characterized by dry, hot summers with low temperatures in winter. The annual precipitation varies between 300-500 mm. The vegetation is represented by oak forests.

Humid subtropics differ from dry subtropics in the abundance of precipitation (1600-2500 mm) without a pronounced dry season. The vegetation is represented by broad-leaved trees (hornbeam, chestnut, ash, etc.). Large areas of the subtropics are occupied by vineyards, citrus fruits, tea, olives, tobacco, etc.

2.4. Altitudinal landscape zoning