The Crimean War answered the long-standing dream of Nicholas I to take possession of the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits. Russia's military potential was quite realizable in the conditions of a war with the Ottoman Empire, however, Russia could not wage a war against the leading world powers. Let's talk briefly about the results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856.
Progress of the war
The main part of the battles took place on the Crimean peninsula, where the allies were successful. However, there were other theaters of war where success accompanied the Russian army. Thus, in the Caucasus, Russian troops captured the large fortress of Kars and occupied part of Anatolia. In Kamchatka and the White Sea, English landing forces were repulsed by garrisons and local residents.
During the defense of the Solovetsky Monastery, the monks fired at the Allied fleet from guns made under Ivan the Terrible.
The conclusion of this historical event was the conclusion of the Paris Peace, the results of which are reflected in the table. The date of signing was March 18, 1856.
The Allies failed to achieve all their goals in the war, but they did stop the rise of Russian influence in the Balkans. There were other results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856.
The war destroyed the financial system of the Russian Empire. So, if England spent 78 million pounds on the war, then Russia’s expenses amounted to 800 million rubles. This forced Nicholas I to sign a decree on the printing of unsecured credit notes.
TOP 5 articleswho are reading along with this
Rice. 1. Portrait of Nicholas I.
Alexander II also revised his policy regarding railway construction.
Rice. 2. Portrait of Alexander II.
Consequences of the war
The authorities began to encourage the creation of a railway network throughout the country, which did not exist before the Crimean War. The experience of combat did not go unnoticed. It was used during the military reforms of the 1860s and 1870s, where the 25-year conscription was replaced. But the main reason for Russia was the impetus for the Great Reforms, including the abolition of serfdom.
For Britain, the unsuccessful military campaign led to the resignation of the Aberdeen government. The war became a litmus test that showed the corruption of the English officers.
In the Ottoman Empire, the main result was the bankruptcy of the state treasury in 1858, as well as the publication of a treatise on freedom of religion and equality of subjects of all nationalities.
For the world, the war gave impetus to the development of the armed forces. The result of the war was an attempt to use the telegraph for military purposes, the beginning of military medicine was laid by Pirogov and the involvement of nurses in caring for the wounded, barrage mines were invented.
After the Battle of Sinop, the manifestation of “information war” was documented.
Rice. 3. Battle of Sinop.
The British wrote in the newspapers that the Russians were finishing off the wounded Turks floating in the sea, which did not happen. After the Allied fleet was caught in an avoidable storm, Emperor Napoleon III of France ordered weather monitoring and daily reporting, which was the beginning of weather forecasting.
What have we learned?
The Crimean War, like any major military clash of world powers, made many changes in both the military and socio-political life of all countries participating in the conflict.
Test on the topic
Evaluation of the report
Average rating: 4.6. Total ratings received: 106.
Introduction
For my essay, I chose the topic “Crimean War 1853-1856: goals and results.” This topic seemed to me the most interesting. “The Crimean War is one of the turning points in the history of international relations and especially in the history of Russian domestic and foreign policy” (E.V. Tarle). It was an armed solution to the historical confrontation between Russia and Europe.
Crimean War 1853-1856 It is considered one of the largest and most dramatic international conflicts. To one degree or another, all the leading powers of the world of that time took part in it, and in terms of its geographical scope, until the middle of the 19th century, it had no equal. All this allows us to consider it a kind of “proto-world” war.
It claimed the lives of more than 1 million people. The Crimean War can in some ways be called a rehearsal for the world wars of the 20th century. This was the first war when the leading world powers, having suffered gigantic losses, came together in a fierce confrontation.
I wanted to work on this topic and generally evaluate the goals and results of the Crimean War. The main tasks of the work include:
1. Determination of the main causes of the Crimean War
2. Review of the progress of the Crimean War
3. Assessment of the results of the Crimean War
1. Literature review
In historiography, the topic of the Crimean War was dealt with by E.V. Tarle (in the book "Crimean War"), K.M. Basili, A.M., Zayonchkovsky et al.
Evgeniy Viktorovich Tarle (1874 - 1955) - Russian Soviet historian, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
Basili Konstantin Mikhailovich (1809 - 1884) - an outstanding Russian orientalist, diplomat, writer and historian.
Andrei Medardovich Zayonchkovsky (1862 - 1926) - Russian and Soviet military leader, military historian.
To prepare this work I used the books:
"Russian Imperial House" - for information about the significance of the Crimean War for Russia
"Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary" - from this book a description of the Crimean War and some general information on this issue is taken
Andreev A.R. “History of Crimea” - I used this literature to describe the general history of the war of 1853-1856.
Tarle E.V. "Crimean War" - information about military operations and the significance of the Crimean War
Zayonchkovsky A.M. "Eastern War 1853-1856" - to obtain information about the events preceding the war and the beginning of military operations against Turkey.
2. Causes of the Crimean War
The Crimean War was the result of many years of rivalry between Western powers in the Middle East. The Ottoman Empire was experiencing a period of decline, and the European powers that had designs on its possessions closely watched each other's actions.
Russia sought to secure its southern borders (to create friendly, independent Orthodox states in South-Eastern Europe, the territory of which could not be absorbed and used by other powers), to expand political influence in the Balkan Peninsula and the Middle East, to establish control over the Black Sea straits of the Bosporus and Dardanelles - an important for Russia the way to the Mediterranean. This was significant from both the military and economic sides. The Russian emperor, recognizing himself as a great Orthodox monarch, sought to liberate the Orthodox peoples under the influence of Turkey. Nicholas I decided to strengthen his position in the Balkans and the Middle East by putting hard pressure on Turkey.
By the time the war began, Sultan Abdülmecid was pursuing a policy of reform - tanzimat, caused by the crisis of Ottoman feudal society, socio-economic problems and increasing rivalry between European powers in the Middle East and the Balkans. For this purpose, borrowed funds from Western states (French and English) were used, which were spent on the purchase of industrial products and weapons, and not on strengthening the Turkish economy. It can be said that Türkiye gradually peacefully fell under the influence of European powers.
The opportunity opened up for Great Britain to form an anti-Russian coalition and weaken Russia's influence in the Balkans. The French Emperor Napoleon III, who reached the throne through a coup d'etat, was looking for an opportunity to intervene in European affairs and take part in some serious war in order to support his power with the brilliance and glory of the victory of French weapons. Therefore, he immediately sided with England in its Eastern policy against Russia. Türkiye decided to use this chance to restore its positions and secede the territories of Crimea and the Caucasus from Russia.
Thus, the causes of the Crimean War were rooted in the clash of colonial interests of countries, i.e. (all countries participating in the Crimean War pursued serious geopolitical interests).
Nicholas I was confident that Austria and Prussia, Russia's partners in the Holy Alliance, would remain at least neutral in the Russian-French conflict, and France would not dare to fight Russia one-on-one. In addition, he believed that Great Britain and France were rivals in the Middle East and would not form an alliance with each other. Nicholas I, speaking against Turkey, hoped for an agreement with England and for the isolation of France (in any case, the Russian emperor was sure that France would not agree to rapprochement with England).
The formal reason for the intervention was a dispute over holy places in Jerusalem, where the Turkish Sultan gave some advantages to Catholics, while infringing on the rights of Orthodox Christians. Relying on the support of France, the Turkish government not only handed over the keys to the Bethlehem Church to Catholics, but also began to restrict Orthodox Christians in the Holy Land, did not allow the restoration of the dome over the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem, and did not allow the construction of a hospital and almshouse for Russian pilgrims. All this provoked the participation of Russia (on the side of the Orthodox Church) and France (on the side of the Catholic Church), who were looking for a reason to put pressure on Turkey.
Defending his co-religionists, Emperor Nicholas I demanded that the Sultan comply with treaties on Russia’s rights in Palestine. For this purpose, in February 1853, by the highest order, Prince A.S. sailed to Constantinople with emergency powers. Menshikov. He was instructed to demand that the Sultan not only resolve the dispute over holy places in favor of the Orthodox Church, but also give a special right to the Russian Tsar to be the patron of all Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman Empire. When this was refused, Prince Menshikov notified the Sultan of the severance of Russian-Turkish relations (although the Sultan agreed to give the holy places under Russian control) and left Constantinople. Following this, Russian troops occupied Moldavia and Wallachia, and England and France, in order to support Turkey, sent their fleets to the Dardanelles. The Sultan, having told Russia the demand for the cleansing of the Danube principalities within 15 days, did not wait for the end of this period and began hostile actions against Russia. October 4 (16), 1853 Turkey, counting on the help of European powers, declared war on Russia. As a result, on October 20 (November 1), 1853, Nicholas I published a manifesto on the war with Turkey. Türkiye willingly went to start a war, wanting the return of the northern coast of the Black Sea, Crimea, and Kuban.
The Crimean War began as a Russian-Turkish war, but then turned into a coalition war of England, France, Turkey and Sardinia against Russia. The Crimean War received its name because Crimea became the main theater of military operations.
The active policy of Nicholas I in the Middle East and Europe rallied interested countries against Russia, which led to its military confrontation with a strong bloc of European powers. England and France sought to prevent Russia from entering the Mediterranean Sea, establish their control over the straits and carry out colonial conquests in the Middle East at the expense of the Turkish Empire. They sought to take control of Turkey's economy and public finances.
In my opinion, the main reasons for hostilities can be formulated as follows:
firstly, England, France and Austria sought to strengthen their influence in the European possessions of the Ottoman Empire, oust Russia from the Black Sea region, thereby limiting its advance to the Middle East;
secondly, Türkiye, encouraged by England and France, hatched plans to secede Crimea and the Caucasus from Russia;
thirdly, Russia sought to defeat the Ottoman Empire, seize the Black Sea straits and expand its influence in the Middle East.
3. Progress of the Crimean War
The Crimean War can be divided into two major stages. At the first (from 1853 to the beginning of 1854), Russia fought one-on-one with Turkey. This period can be called the classic Russian-Turkish war with the Danube, Caucasus and Black Sea theaters of military operations. At the second stage (from 1854 to February 1856), England, France, and then Sardinia took the side of Turkey. The small Sardinian kingdom sought to achieve recognition of the status of a “power” by European capitals. England and France promised her this if Sardinia entered the war against Russia. This turn of events had a great influence on the course of the war. Russia had to fight a powerful coalition of states that surpassed Russia in the scale and quality of weapons, especially in the field of naval forces, small arms and communications. In this regard, it can be considered that the Crimean War opened a new era of wars of the industrial era, when the importance of military equipment and the military-economic potential of states increased sharply.
The Turkish Sultan, supported by England and France, on September 27 (October 4), 1853, demanded that Russia clear the Danube principalities (Moldova and Wallachia) and, without waiting for the 15 days allotted for them to respond, began military operations. October 4 (16), 1853. Turkey declared war on Russia. Under the command of Omar Pasha, the Turkish army crossed the Danube.
The day before the declaration of war, on October 3 (15), 1853, the Ottomans fired at Russian pickets on the left bank of the Danube. October 11 (23), 1853. The Ottomans shelled Russian military ships passing along the Danube. October 15 (27), 1853, an attack by Ottoman troops on Russian fortifications began military operations on the Caucasian front. As a result, on October 20 (November 1), Nicholas I issued a manifesto on Russia’s entry into the war with the Ottoman Empire, and in November he opened military operations.
On November 18 (30), in Sinop Bay, the Russian Black Sea squadron, under the command of Nakhimov, attacked the Turkish fleet and, after a stubborn battle, destroyed it all.
On November 11 (23), commander Nakhimov approached Sinop with small forces and blocked the entrance to the port. A ship was sent to Sevastopol with a request for reinforcements. On November 17 (29), the first part of the expected reinforcements arrived. At that moment, Nakhimov’s squadron included 6 battleships and two frigates. The Turkish squadron, which arrived in Sinop from Istanbul, stood in the roadstead and was preparing to land a large troop landing in the area of Sukhumi and Poti. On the morning of November 18 (30), without waiting for the arrival of Kornilov’s detachment, Nakhimov led his squadron to Sinop. By the evening of the same day, the Turkish squadron was almost completely destroyed, along with its entire crew. Of the entire Turkish squadron, only one ship survived, which fled to Constantinople and brought there the news of the death of the fleet. The defeat of the Turkish squadron significantly weakened Turkey's naval forces.
Alarmed by Russia's victory at Sinop, on December 23, 1853 (January 4, 1854), England and France sent their fleets into the Black Sea, and Russia was demanded to withdraw Russian troops from the Danube principalities. Nicholas I refused. Then on March 15 (27) England and March 16 (28) France declared war on Russia.
England is trying to drag Austria and Prussia into the war with Russia. However, she did not succeed, although they took a position hostile to Russia. April 8 (20), 1854 Austria and Prussia demand that Russia clear the Danube principalities of its troops. Russia is forced to comply with the demands.
On August 4 (16), French troops captured and destroyed the Bomarsund fortress on the Åland Islands, and then carried out a brutal bombardment in Sveaborg. As a result, the Russian Baltic Fleet was blocked at its bases. But the confrontation continued, and the attack of the allied forces on Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky at the end of August 1854 ended in complete failure.
Meanwhile, in the summer of 1854, a 50,000-strong expeditionary force of allied forces was concentrated in Varna. This unit was provided with the latest weapons, which the Russian army did not have (rifled guns, etc.).
England and France tried to organize a broad coalition against Russia, but managed to involve only the Sardinian kingdom, dependent on France, in it. At the beginning of hostilities, the Allied fleets bombarded Odessa, but without success. Then the English squadrons made demonstrations in the Baltic Sea, in the White Sea, at the Solovetsky Monastery, even off the coast of Kamchatka, but did not take serious action anywhere. After a meeting of French and English military leaders, it was decided to strike Russia on the Black Sea and besiege Sevastopol as an important military port. If this operation was successful, England and France hoped to simultaneously destroy the entire Russian Black Sea Fleet and its main base.
On September 2-6 (14-18), 1854, a 62,000-strong Allied army landed near Yevpatoria, more numerous, better equipped and armed than the Russian army. Due to a lack of strength, Russian troops were unable to stop the landing of the allied forces, but still tried to stop the enemy on the Alma River, where on September 8 (20), 1854, the Allied army was met by Prince Menshikov with only 35 thousand people and, after an unsuccessful battle, retreated south to Sevastopol, Russia’s main stronghold in Crimea.
The heroic defense of Sevastopol began on September 13 (25), 1854. The defense of the city was in the hands of V.A. Kornilov and Admiral P.S. Nakhimov. The garrison of Sevastopol consisted of only 11 thousand people, and the fortifications were only on one seaside side, and the fortress was almost unprotected from the north and south. Allied forces, supported by a strong fleet, stormed the northern part of Sevastopol. In order to prevent the enemy fleet from reaching the southern side, Menshikov ordered the ships of the Black Sea squadron to be scuttled, and their guns and crews to be transferred to the shore to strengthen the garrison. At the entrance to Sevastopol Bay, the Russians sank several sailing ships, thereby blocking access to the bay for the Anglo-French fleet. In addition, the strengthening of the southern side began.
On October 5 (12), the Allies began shelling the city. One of the main defenders, Kornilov, was mortally wounded by a cannonball at the moment when he was descending from the Malakhov Kurgan, after inspecting the positions. The defense of Sevastopol was led by P.S. Nakhimov, E.I. Totleben and V.I. Istomin. The besieged garrison responded to the enemy, and the first bombardment did not bring much results to the Allies. They abandoned the assault and carried out an intensified siege.
A.S. Menshikov, trying to distract the enemy from the city, undertook a series of offensive operations. As a result, the Turks were successfully knocked out of their positions near Kadykioy, but he failed to win the battle with the British near Balaklava on October 13 (25). The Battle of Balaklava was one of the largest battles of the Crimean War between Great Britain, France and Turkey on the one hand, and Russia on the other. The city of Balaklava was the base of the British Expeditionary Force in Crimea. The attack of Russian troops on the positions of the allies at Balaklava, if successful, could lead to a disruption in the supply of the British. On October 13 (25), the battle took place in the valleys north of Balaklava. This was the only battle during the entire Crimean War in which Russian troops significantly outnumbered them.
The Russian detachment consisted of 16 thousand people. The Allied forces were represented mainly by British troops. French and Turkish units also took part in the battle, but their role was insignificant. The number of Allied troops was about two thousand people.
The battle began early in the morning. In order to cover the too wide front of the Russian cavalry attack, the Scottish commander Campbell ordered his soldiers to line up in lines of two. The first Russian attack was repulsed.
Lord Raglan gave the order to attack Russian positions, which led to tragic consequences. During this attack, two thirds of the attackers were killed.
By the end of the battle, the opposing sides remained in their morning positions. The Allied death toll ranged from 400 to 1,000, the Russian death toll was about 600.
On October 24 (November 5), Russian troops under the command of General Soimonov attacked the British positions. The enemy was taken by surprise. As a result, the Russians captured the fortifications, but were unable to hold them and retreated. With the help of General Pavlov's detachment, which approached from Inkerman, the Russian troops managed to achieve a significant advantage, and the British troops found themselves in a critical situation. In the heat of battle, the British lost a large number of their soldiers and were ready to admit defeat, but were saved by the intervention of the French, brought by General Bosquet. The entry of French troops into battle turned the tide of the battle. The outcome of the battle was decided by the advantage in their weapons, which were longer-range than the Russians.
Russian troops were defeated and forced to retreat with heavy losses (11,800 people), the Allies lost 5,700 people. Among those killed in battle was General Soimonov. The battle also had a positive outcome: the general assault on Sevastopol, planned by the Allies for the next day, did not take place.
The Russians were defeated at Inkerman, and Menshikov’s detachment was forced to retreat from the city deeper into the peninsula.
The war continued. On January 14 (26), 1855, the Sardinian kingdom joined the allied anti-Russian coalition.
The conditions for the defense of Sevastopol were incredibly difficult. There were not enough people, ammunition, food, and medicine.
With the onset of winter, hostilities died down. Nicholas I gathered a militia and sent it to help the defenders of Sevastopol. Grand Dukes Mikhail and Nikolai Nikolaevich arrived in the Russian army for moral support.
In February, hostilities resumed, and, by order of the emperor, Russian troops went on the offensive near the highest point in Sevastopol - Malakhov Kurgan. Several enemy detachments were knocked down from the hills closest to him, and the occupied hills were immediately fortified.
On February 18, 1855, amid these events, Emperor Nicholas I died. But the war continued under the sovereign's successor, Alexander II. Siege and defensive work on both sides continued until the end of March; On the 28th of this month, the Allies began bombardment from land and continued it until April 1, then they soon resumed it again, and only on April 7 the besieged breathed more freely. There have been big changes in their composition. In place of Prince Menshikov, Emperor Alexander II appointed Prince Gorchakov. In turn, among the Allies, the French commander-in-chief Canrobert was replaced by General Pelissier.
Realizing that Malakhov Kurgan was the key to the defense of Sevastopol, Pelissier directed all efforts to capture it. On May 26, after a terrible bombardment, the French took the fortifications closest to Malakhov Kurgan with hostility. All that remained was to take possession of the mound itself, but this turned out to be more difficult than the attackers expected. On June 5 (17), a cannonade began, on June 6 (18) an assault was carried out, but unsuccessfully: General Khrulev repulsed all attacks, the enemy had to retreat and continued for another 3 months fight over the mound, near which all the forces of both sides were now concentrated. On June 8 (20), the wounded leader of the defense, Totleben, left the defenders of the fortress, and on June 27 (July 9) they were struck by a new heavy loss: Nakhimov was mortally wounded in the temple and across died three days later.
On August 4, Gorchakov launched an attack on the enemy positions at the Chernaya Rechka, and the next day he fought a battle there, which ended unsuccessfully for the Russian army. After this, from August 6 (18), Pelissier began bombing the city and continued it continuously for 20 days. Gorchakov became convinced that defending Sevastopol for any longer was unthinkable and that in the event of a new assault, the fortress would be taken. To ensure that the enemy did not get anything, they began placing mines under all the fortifications, and a floating bridge was built to transfer troops.
On August 27 (September 8), at 12 noon, the enemy moved to Malakhov Kurgan and, after a terrible battle, captured it, and General Khrulev, the main defender, was wounded and almost captured. Russian troops immediately began to leave across the bridge to the northern side, the remaining ships were sunk and the fortifications were blown up. After 349 days of stubborn struggle and many bloody battles, the enemy captured the fortress, which was a pile of ruins.
After the occupation of Sevastopol, the Allies suspended military operations: they could not launch an offensive into Russia without having convoys, and Prince Gorchakov, who fortified himself with the army near the captured fortress, did not accept battles in open areas. Winter completely stopped allied military operations in Crimea, as illness began in their army.
Sevastopol defense 1854 - 1855 showed everyone the strength of the patriotic feeling of the Russian people and the resilience of their national character.
Not counting on the imminent end of the war, both sides started talking about peace. France did not want to continue the war, not wanting to either strengthen England or weaken Russia beyond measure. Russia also wanted the war to end.
4. Results of the Crimean War
On March 18 (30), 1856, peace was signed in Paris with the participation of all the warring powers, as well as Austria and Prussia. The Russian delegation was headed by Count A.F. Orlov. He managed to achieve conditions that were less severe and humiliating for Russia than expected after such an unfortunate war.
According to the Paris Peace Treaty, Russia received back Sevastopol, Evpatoria and other Russian cities, but returned to Turkey the fortress of Kars taken in the Caucasus, Russia lost the mouth of the Danube and southern Bessarabia, the Black Sea was declared neutral, and Russia was deprived of the right to maintain a navy on it, having also undertaken not to build fortifications on the coast. Thus, the Russian Black Sea coast became defenseless from possible aggression. Eastern Christians came under the protection of European powers, i.e. Russia was deprived of the right to protect the interests of the Orthodox population on the territory of the Ottoman Empire, which weakened Russia's influence on Middle Eastern affairs.
The Crimean War had unfavorable consequences for Russia. Its result was a significant weakening of Russian influence, both in Europe and the Middle East. The destruction of the remnants of the military fleet on the Black Sea and the elimination of fortifications on the coast left the country's southern border open to any enemy invasion. Although, under the terms of the Treaty of Paris, Turkey also abandoned its Black Sea Fleet, it always had the opportunity to bring its squadrons there from the Mediterranean Sea through the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits.
The positions of France and Great Britain and their influence in the Eastern Mediterranean, on the contrary, seriously strengthened, and France became one of the leading powers in Europe.
Crimean War in the period 1853-1856. killed more than 1 million people (522 thousand Russians, 400 thousand Turks, 95 thousand French and 22 thousand British).
In terms of its enormous scale (the size of the theater of operations and the number of mobilized troops), the Crimean War can be compared with the World War. Russia acted alone in this war, defending itself on several fronts. It was opposed by an international coalition consisting of Great Britain, France, the Ottoman Empire and Sardinia (since 1855), which inflicted a crushing defeat on Russia.
The Crimean War frankly demonstrated the fact that in order to achieve its global goals, the West is ready to combine its power with the Muslim East. In the event of this war, to crush the third center of power - Orthodox Russia.
In addition, the Crimean War showed the Russian government that economic backwardness leads to political and military vulnerability. Further economic lag behind Europe threatened more serious consequences. As a result, the main task of Russian foreign policy from 1856 to 1871 was there was a struggle for the abolition of some articles of the Paris Treaty, because Russia could not accept the fact that its Black Sea border remained unprotected and open to military attack. The security interests of the state, as well as economic and political ones, required the abolition of the neutral status of the Black Sea.
Conclusion
Crimean War 1853-1856 originally fought between the Russian and Ottoman empires for dominance in the Middle East. On the eve of the war, Nicholas I misjudged the international situation (regarding England, France and Austria). Nicholas I did not take into account either the benefit for Napoleon III of diverting the attention of the French broad sections of the people from internal affairs to foreign policy, or the economic interests of the French bourgeoisie in Turkey. The victories of the Russian troops at the beginning of the war, namely the defeat of the Turkish fleet in the Battle of Sinop, prompted England and France to intervene in the war on the side of the Ottoman Empire. In 1855, the Sardinian kingdom joined the warring coalition, which wanted to gain the status of a world power. Sweden and Austria, which were bound by the bonds of the “Holy Alliance” with Russia, were ready to join the allies. Military operations took place in the Baltic Sea, Kamchatka, the Caucasus, and the Danube principalities. The main actions took place in Crimea during the defense of Sevastopol from Allied troops.
As a result, through joint efforts, the united coalition won this war. Russia signed the Paris Peace Treaty with unfavorable conditions.
Russia's defeat can be explained by several groups of reasons: political, socio-economic and technical.
The political reason for Russia's defeat in the Crimean War was the unification of the leading European powers (England and France) against it. The socio-economic reason for the defeat was the preservation of serf labor, which hampered the economic development of the country and caused its technical backwardness. This resulted in limited industrial development. The technical reason for the defeat was the outdated weapons of the Russian army.
Military factories, which existed in small numbers, worked poorly due to primitive technology and unproductive serf labor. The main engines were water and horse traction. Before the Crimean War, Russia produced only 50-70 thousand rifles and pistols, 100-120 guns and 60-80 thousand pounds of gunpowder per year.
The Russian army suffered from a lack of weapons and ammunition. The weapons were outdated, and almost no new types of weapons were introduced.
The military training of the Russian troops was also low. Before the Crimean War, the Russian Military Ministry was headed by Prince A.I. Chernyshev, who prepared the army not for war, but for parades. For shooting training, 10 live rounds were allocated per soldier per year.
Transport and communications were also in poor condition, which negatively affected the combat effectiveness of the Russian army. There was not a single railway from the center to the south of the country. The troops marched on foot, transporting weapons and ammunition on oxen. It was easier to deliver soldiers to Crimea from England or France than from the center of Russia.
The Russian Navy was third in the world, but inferior to the English and French. England and France had 454 warships, including 258 steamships, and Russia had 115 ships with 24 steamships.
I believe that the main reasons for Russia’s defeat in the Crimean War can be called:
an incorrect assessment of the international situation, which led to diplomatic isolation of Russia and a war with not one, but several powerful opponents
backward military industry (based mainly on serf labor)
outdated weapons
lack of a developed road transport system
Defeat in the Crimean War (1853-1856) demonstrated that the country could finally lose its status as a great power.
The Crimean War was a strong impetus for the aggravation of the social crisis within the country, contributed to the development of mass peasant uprisings, accelerated the fall of serfdom and the implementation of bourgeois reforms.
The world-historical significance of the Crimean War lies in the fact that it clearly and convincingly drew the line of civilizational division between Russia and Europe.
Russia's defeat in the Crimean War led to its loss of the leadership role in Europe that it had played for forty years. In Europe, the so-called “Crimean system” developed, the basis of which was the Anglo-French bloc directed against Russia. The articles of the Paris Peace Treaty dealt a significant blow to the Russian Empire. The most difficult of them was the one that prohibited her from having a navy in the Black Sea and building coastal fortifications. However, by and large, Russia paid a much lower price for defeat than it could have, given more successful military actions on the part of the allies.
List of used literature
1. "Russian Imperial House". - Moscow, publishing house "OLMA Media Group", 2006
2. "Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary". - Moscow, publishing house "Soviet Encyclopedia", 1981, p.669
3. Tarle E.V. "Crimean War". - Moscow, publishing house "AST", 2005 - http://webreading.ru/sci_/sci_history/evgeniy-tarle-krimskaya-voyna.html
4. Andreev A.R. "History of Crimea" - http://webreading.ru/sci_/sci_history/a-andreev-istoriya-krima.html
5. Zayonchkovsky A.M. "Eastern War, 1853-1856". - St. Petersburg, Polygon publishing house, 2002 - http://www.adjudant.ru/crimea/zai00. htm
Tutoring
Need help studying a topic?
Our specialists will advise or provide tutoring services on topics that interest you.
Submit your application indicating the topic right now to find out about the possibility of obtaining a consultation.
The entry into the Russian-Turkish war of France, Sardinia and England on the side of Turkey after the famous Battle of Sinop determined the transfer of armed clashes to land, to Crimea. With the beginning of the campaign in Crimea, the war of 1853-1856. acquired a defensive character for Russia. The Allies deployed almost 90 warships (mostly steam-powered) in the Black Sea against Russia, while the Black Sea squadron consisted of about 20 sailing and 6 steam-powered ships. There was no point in a naval confrontation - the superiority of the coalition forces was obvious.
In September 1854, allied troops landed near Yevpatoria. On September 8, 1854, the Russian army under the command of A.S. Menshikova was defeated at the Alma River. It seemed that the path to Sevastopol was open. In connection with the increased threat of the capture of Sevastopol, the Russian command decided to scuttle part of the Black Sea fleet at the entrance to the city’s large bay in order to prevent enemy ships from entering there. The guns were first removed to strengthen the coastal artillery. The city itself did not give up. On September 13, 1854, the defense of Sevastopol began, lasting 349 days - until August 28 (September 8), 1855.
Admirals V.A. played a huge role in the defense of the city. Kornilov, V.I. Istomin, P.S. Nakhimov. Vice Admiral Vladimir Alekseevich Kornilov became the commander of the defense of Sevastopol. Under his command there were about 18,000 people (later the number would be increased to 85,000), mainly from naval commands. Kornilov was well aware of the size of the Anglo-French-Turkish landing force, numbering 62,000 people (later the number would reach 148,000) with 134 field and 73 siege guns. By September 24, the French occupied the Fedyukhin Heights, and the British entered Balaklava.
In Sevastopol, under the supervision of engineer E.I. Totleben, engineering work was carried out - forts were erected, redoubts were strengthened, and trenches were created. The southern part of the city was more fortified. The Allies did not dare to storm the city and began engineering work, but successful forays from Sevastopol did not allow the construction of the siege fortifications to be completed quickly.
Sevastopol was subjected to the first major bombardment on October 5, 1854, after which its assault was planned. However, the well-aimed response from Russian batteries thwarted these plans. But on this day Kornilov died.
The main forces of the Russian army under the command of Menshikov undertook a series of unsuccessful attack operations. The first was carried out on October 13 on the approaches to Balaklava. This attack did not have any strategic gain, but during the battle almost an entire brigade of British light cavalry was killed. On October 24, another battle took place in the area of the Inkerman Heights, which was lost due to the indecisiveness of the Russian generals.
On October 17, 1854, the Allies began shelling Sevastopol from land and sea. The bastions also responded with fire. Only the British were able to achieve success, acting against the third bastion of Sevastopol. Russian losses amounted to 1,250 people. In general, the defenders continued the tactics of night raids and surprise raids. The famous Pyotr Koshka and Ignatius Shevchenko, with their courage and heroism, have repeatedly proven how high the price the enemy will have to pay for invading Russian spaces.
Sailor of the 1st article of the 30th naval Black Sea crew Pyotr Markovich Koshka (1828-1882) became one of the main heroes of the city’s defense. At the beginning of the Sevastopol defense, P. Koshka was assigned to one of the batteries of the Ship side. He was distinguished by extraordinary courage and resourcefulness. By the beginning of 1855, he made 18 forays into enemy positions, most often acting alone. A verbal portrait of him has been preserved: “Average height, lean, but strong with an expressive high-cheekbone face... A little pockmarked, light brown hair, gray eyes, did not know how to read and write.” In January 1855, he already proudly wore “George” in his buttonhole. After leaving the southern part of the city, he was “dismissed due to injury on a long vacation.” They remembered Koshka in August 1863 and called him to serve in the Baltic, in the 8th naval crew. There, at the request of another hero of Sevastopol, General S.A. Khrulev he received another “George” of the second degree. On the occasion of the 100th anniversary of the defense of Sevastopol, monuments to him were unveiled in Koshka’s homeland and in Sevastopol itself, and one of the city streets was named after him.
The heroism of the defenders of Sevastopol was massive. Sevastopol women, under enemy fire, bandaged the wounded, brought food and water, and repaired clothes. The chronicle of this defense includes the names of Dasha Sevastopol, Praskovya Grafova and many others. Dasha Sevastopolskaya was the first sister of mercy and became a legend. For a long time, her real name was not known, and only recently it became clear that Dasha was an orphan - the daughter of the sailor Lavrenty Mikhailov who died in the Battle of Sinop. In November 1854, “for exemplary diligence in caring for the sick and wounded,” she received a Gold Medal with the inscription “For Diligence” on the Vladimir Ribbon and 500 silver rubles. It was also announced that when she got married, she would be “given another 1,000 rubles in silver for the establishment.” In July 1855, Daria married sailor Maxim Vasilyevich Khvorostov, with whom they fought side by side until the end of the Crimean War. Her further fate is unknown and is still awaiting research.
Surgeon N.I. provided invaluable assistance to the defenders. Pirogov, who saved the lives of thousands of wounded. The great Russian writer L.N. also took part in the defense of Sevastopol. Tolstoy, who described these events in the series “Sevastopol Stories”.
Despite the heroism and courage of the city’s defenders, the hardships and hunger of the Anglo-French army (the winter of 1854-1855 was very harsh, and the November storm scattered the allied fleet in the Balaklava roadstead, destroying several ships with supplies of weapons, winter uniforms and food) It was impossible to change the general situation - it was impossible to unblock the city or effectively help it.
On March 19, 1855, during the next bombing of the city, Istomin died, and on June 28, 1855, while detouring the advanced fortifications on the Malakhov kugran, Nakhimov was mortally wounded. The circumstances of his death are truly tragic. The officers begged him to leave the mound, which was under heavy fire. “Not every bullet is in the forehead,” the admiral answered them, and these were his last words: the next second a stray bullet hit him in the forehead. An outstanding Russian naval commander, Admiral Pavel Stepanovich Nakhimov (1802-1855) actively participated in the defense of Sevastopol, commanding the defense of the strategically important southern side of the city. Shortly before his death, he was awarded the rank of admiral. Nakhimov was buried in the Vladimir Cathedral in Sevastopol. Ships of the Russian fleet and naval schools in Sevastopol and St. Petersburg bear his name. In 1944, in memory of the admiral, an order named after him in two degrees and a medal were established.
Attempts by the Russian ground army to distract the enemy ended in failure in battles, in particular on February 5, 1855 at Yevpatoria. The immediate result of this failure was the dismissal of Menshikov from the post of commander in chief and the appointment of M.D. Gorchakova. Note that this was the last order of the emperor, who died on February 19, 1855. Overcoming a severe flu, the sovereign “remained in service” to the end, visiting marching battalions in the bitter cold that were leaving for the theater of war. “If I were a simple soldier, would you pay attention to this ill health?” he remarked to the protest of his life doctors. “In all of Your Majesty’s army, there is not a doctor who would allow a soldier in such a situation to be discharged from the hospital,” replied Dr. Carrel. “You have fulfilled your duty,” the emperor replied, “let me fulfill my duty.”
On August 27, the last shelling of the city began. In less than a day, the defenders lost from 2.5 to 3 thousand killed. After a two-day massive bombardment, on August 28 (September 8), 1855, the French troops of General MacMahon, with the support of English and Sardinian units, began a decisive assault on the Malakhov Kurgan, which ended with the capture of the heights dominating the city. The fate of the Malakhov Kurgan was decided by the persistence of MacMahon, who, in response to the order of Commander-in-Chief Pelissier to retreat, replied: “I’m staying here.” Of the eighteen French generals who went on the assault, 5 were killed and 11 were wounded.
Realizing the gravity of the current situation, General Gorchakov gave the order to retreat from the city. And on the night of August 27-28, the last defenders of the city, having blown up the powder magazines and sank the ships there in the bay, left the city. The Allies thought that Sevastopol was mined and did not dare to enter it until August 30. During the 11-month siege, the Allies lost about 70,000 people. Russian losses - 83,500 people.
Important memories of the defense of Sevastopol were left by Theophyllus Klemm, whose ancestors in the 18th century. came to Russia from Germany. His story is strikingly different from the memoirs written by representatives of the aristocratic strata of Russia, since a significant part of his memories are devoted to the everyday life of a soldier and the difficulties of camp life.
“A lot has been written and spoken about this Sevastopol life, but my words will not be superfluous, as a living participant in this glorious combat life for the Russian soldier in this bloody feast, not in the position of a white-handed woman, like those writers and talkers who know everything from hearsay, but a real laborer-soldier, who was in the ranks and did, along with the other guys, everything that was humanly possible.
You used to sit in a trench and look into a small embrasure, what was happening in front of your nose, you couldn’t stick your head out, now they would remove it, without such cover, it was impossible to shoot. Our soldiers had fun, they hung their hats on the ramrod and pulled them out from behind the trench rim, and the French riflemen shot it into the sieve. It used to happen that every now and then there would be a click somewhere, a soldier would fall down, hit in the forehead, his neighbor would turn his head, cross himself, spit, and continue his business - firing somewhere, as if nothing had happened. The corpse will be placed somewhere to the side so that it does not interfere with walking along the trench, and so, dear, it lies until the shift - at night the comrades will drag it into the redoubt, and from the redoubt into the brotherly pit, and when the pit is filled with the required number of bodies, they will fall asleep first, if there is, with lime, but if not, with earth - and the matter is settled.
After such a school you will become a real soldier in blood and bones, and I bow deeply to every such combat soldier. And what a charm he is in wartime, you can find whatever you want in him, when you need it, he is good-natured, warm-hearted, when you need it, he is a lion. With my own feeling for his endurance and good qualities as a soldier, I love him with my soul and heart. Without pretensions, without special demands, patient, indifferent to death, efficient, despite obstacles and danger. I believe that only the Russian soldier is capable of anything, I speak from what I have seen and past.”
Despite the fact that English rifled guns hit almost three times further than Russian smooth-bore guns, the defenders of Sevastopol repeatedly proved that technical equipment is far from the most important thing in comparison with combat courage and bravery. But in general, the Crimean War and the defense of Sevastopol demonstrated the technical backwardness of the army of the Russian Empire and the need for change.
In 1854, diplomatic negotiations between the warring parties were held in Vienna through the mediation of Austria. England and France, as peace conditions, demanded a ban on Russia keeping a naval fleet on the Black Sea, Russia’s renunciation of the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia and claims to patronage of the Sultan’s Orthodox subjects, as well as “freedom of navigation” on the Danube (that is, depriving Russia of access to its mouths).
On December 2 (14), Austria announced an alliance with England and France. On December 28, 1854 (January 9, 1855), a conference of the ambassadors of England, France, Austria and Russia opened, but the negotiations did not produce results and were interrupted in April 1855.
On January 14 (26), 1855, the Sardinian Kingdom joined the allies and concluded an agreement with France, after which 15 thousand Piedmontese soldiers went to Sevastopol. According to Palmerston's plan, Sardinia was to receive Venice and Lombardy, taken from Austria, for participation in the coalition. After the war, France concluded an agreement with Sardinia, in which it officially assumed the corresponding obligations (which, however, were never fulfilled).
On February 18 (March 2), 1855, Russian Emperor Nicholas I died suddenly. The Russian throne was inherited by his son, Alexander II. After the fall of Sevastopol, differences arose in the coalition. Palmerston wanted to continue the war, Napoleon III did not. The French emperor began secret (separate) negotiations with Russia. Meanwhile, Austria announced its readiness to join the allies. In mid-December, she presented Russia with an ultimatum:
Replacement of the Russian protectorate over Wallachia and Serbia with the protectorate of all the great powers;
establishing freedom of navigation at the mouths of the Danube;
preventing the passage of anyone's squadrons through the Dardanelles and the Bosporus into the Black Sea, prohibiting Russia and Turkey from keeping a navy in the Black Sea and having arsenals and military fortifications on the shores of this sea;
Russia's refusal to patronize the Sultan's Orthodox subjects;
cession by Russia in favor of Moldova of the section of Bessarabia adjacent to the Danube. 
A few days later, Alexander II received a letter from Frederick William IV, who urged the Russian emperor to accept Austrian terms, hinting that otherwise Prussia might join the anti-Russian coalition. Thus, Russia found itself in complete diplomatic isolation, which, given the depletion of resources and the defeats inflicted by the allies, put it in an extremely difficult position.
On the evening of December 20, 1855 (January 1, 1856), a meeting convened by him took place in the tsar’s office. It was decided to invite Austria to omit the 5th paragraph. Austria rejected this proposal. Then Alexander II convened a secondary meeting on January 15 (27), 1855. The assembly unanimously decided to accept the ultimatum as preconditions for peace.
On February 13 (25), 1856, the Paris Congress began, and on March 18 (30) a peace treaty was signed.
Russia returned the city of Kars with a fortress to the Ottomans, receiving in exchange Sevastopol, Balaklava and other Crimean cities captured from it.
The Black Sea was declared neutral (that is, open to commercial traffic and closed to military vessels in peacetime), with Russia and the Ottoman Empire prohibited from having military fleets and arsenals there.
Navigation along the Danube was declared free, for which the Russian borders were moved away from the river and part of Russian Bessarabia with the mouth of the Danube was annexed to Moldova.
Russia was deprived of the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia granted to it by the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace of 1774 and the exclusive protection of Russia over the Christian subjects of the Ottoman Empire.
Russia pledged not to build fortifications on the Åland Islands.
During the war, the participants in the anti-Russian coalition failed to achieve all their goals, but managed to prevent Russia from strengthening in the Balkans and deprive it of the Black Sea Fleet for 15 years. 
Consequences of the war
The war led to a breakdown of the financial system of the Russian Empire (Russia spent 800 million rubles on the war, Britain - 76 million pounds): to finance military expenses, the government had to resort to printing unsecured banknotes, which led to a decrease in their silver coverage from 45% in 1853 . to 19% in 1858, that is, in fact, to more than a twofold depreciation of the ruble.
Russia was able to achieve a deficit-free state budget again only in 1870, that is, 14 years after the end of the war. It was possible to establish a stable exchange rate of the ruble to gold and restore its international conversion in 1897, during the Witte monetary reform.
The war became the impetus for economic reforms and, subsequently, for the abolition of serfdom.
The experience of the Crimean War partially formed the basis for the military reforms of the 1860s and 1870s in Russia (replacing the outdated 25-year military service, etc.).
In 1871, Russia achieved the lifting of the ban on keeping the navy in the Black Sea under the London Convention. In 1878, Russia was able to return the lost territories under the Treaty of Berlin, signed within the framework of the Berlin Congress, which took place following the results of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878.
The government of the Russian Empire is beginning to reconsider its policy in the field of railway construction, which previously manifested itself in repeated blocking of private projects for the construction of railways, including to Kremenchug, Kharkov and Odessa, and defending the unprofitability and unnecessaryness of the construction of railways south of Moscow. In September 1854, an order was issued to begin research on the line Moscow - Kharkov - Kremenchug - Elizavetgrad - Olviopol - Odessa. In October 1854, an order was received to begin research on the Kharkov-Feodosia line, in February 1855 - on a branch from the Kharkov-Feodosia line to Donbass, in June 1855 - on the Genichesk-Simferopol-Bakhchisarai-Sevastopol line. On January 26, 1857, the Highest Decree was issued on the creation of the first railway network.
...railroads, the need for which many had doubted even ten years ago, are now recognized by all classes as a necessity for the Empire and have become a popular need, a common, urgent desire. In this deep conviction, we, following the first cessation of hostilities, ordered means to better satisfy this urgent need... turn to private industry, both domestic and foreign... in order to take advantage of the significant experience acquired in the construction of many thousands of miles of railways in Western Europe .
Britannia
Military failures caused the resignation of the British government of Aberdeen, who was replaced in his post by Palmerston. The depravity of the official system of selling officer ranks for money, which has been preserved in the British army since medieval times, was revealed.
Ottoman Empire
During the Eastern Campaign, the Ottoman Empire made 7 million pounds sterling in England. In 1858, the Sultan's treasury was declared bankrupt.
In February 1856, Sultan Abdulmecid I was forced to issue a Khatt-i-Sherif (decree), which proclaimed freedom of religion and equality of subjects of the empire regardless of nationality.
The Crimean War gave impetus to the development of the armed forces, military and naval art of states. In many countries, a transition began from smooth-bore weapons to rifled weapons, from a sailing wooden fleet to a steam-powered armored one, and positional forms of warfare arose.
In the ground forces, the role of small arms and, accordingly, fire preparation for an attack increased, a new battle formation appeared - a rifle chain, which was also the result of a sharply increased capabilities of small arms. Over time, it completely replaced the columns and loose construction.
Sea barrage mines were invented and used for the first time.
The beginning of the use of the telegraph for military purposes was laid.
Florence Nightingale laid the foundations for modern sanitation and care for the wounded in hospitals - in less than six months after her arrival in Turkey, mortality in hospitals decreased from 42 to 2.2%.
For the first time in the history of wars, sisters of mercy were involved in caring for the wounded.
Nikolai Pirogov was the first in Russian field medicine to use a plaster cast, which accelerated the healing process of fractures and saved the wounded from ugly curvature of the limbs.
One of the early manifestations of the information war is documented when, immediately after the Battle of Sinop, English newspapers wrote in reports on the battle that the Russians were finishing off the wounded Turks floating in the sea.
On March 1, 1854, a new asteroid was discovered by the German astronomer Robert Luther at the Dusseldorf Observatory, Germany. This asteroid was named (28) Bellona in honor of Bellona, the ancient Roman goddess of war, part of the retinue of Mars. The name was proposed by the German astronomer Johann Encke and symbolized the beginning of the Crimean War.
On March 31, 1856, the German astronomer Hermann Goldschmidt discovered an asteroid named (40) Harmony. The name was chosen to commemorate the end of the Crimean War.
For the first time, photography was widely used to cover the progress of the war. In particular, a collection of photographs taken by Roger Fenton and numbering 363 images was purchased by the Library of Congress.
The practice of constant weather forecasting emerged, first in Europe and then throughout the world. The storm of November 14, 1854, which caused heavy losses to the Allied fleet, and the fact that these losses could have been prevented, forced the Emperor of France, Napoleon III, to personally instruct his country's leading astronomer, W. Le Verrier, to create an effective weather forecast service. Already on February 19, 1855, just three months after the storm in Balaclava, the first forecast map was created, the prototype of those we see in weather news, and in 1856 there were already 13 weather stations operating in France.
Cigarettes were invented: the habit of wrapping tobacco crumbs in old newspapers was copied by the British and French troops in the Crimea from their Turkish comrades.
The young author Leo Tolstoy gained all-Russian fame with his “Sevastopol Stories” published in the press from the scene of events. Here he created a song criticizing the actions of the command in the battle on the Black River.
According to estimates of military losses, the total number of those killed in battle, as well as those who died from wounds and diseases in the Allied army was 160-170 thousand people, in the Russian army - 100-110 thousand people. According to other estimates, the total number of deaths in the war, including non-combat losses, was approximately 250 thousand on the Russian side and on the Allied side.
In Great Britain, the Crimean Medal was established to reward distinguished soldiers, and the Baltic Medal was established to reward those who distinguished themselves in the Baltic in the Royal Navy and Marine Corps. In 1856, the Victoria Cross medal was established to reward those who distinguished themselves during the Crimean War, which is still Britain's highest military award.
In the Russian Empire, on November 26, 1856, Emperor Alexander II established the medal “In Memory of the War of 1853-1856,” as well as the medal “For the Defense of Sevastopol,” and ordered the Mint to produce 100,000 copies of the medal.
On August 26, 1856, Alexander II granted the population of Taurida a “Certificate of Gratitude.”
On October 23, 1853, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia. By this time, our Danube Army (55 thousand) was concentrated in the vicinity of Bucharest, with forward detachments on the Danube, and the Ottomans had up to 120 - 130 thousand in European Turkey, under the command of Omer Pasha. These troops were located: 30 thousand at Shumla, 30 thousand in Adrianople, and the rest along the Danube from Viddin to the mouth.
Somewhat earlier than the announcement of the Crimean War, the Turks had already begun military operations by seizing the Oltenice quarantine on the left bank of the Danube on the night of October 20. The arriving Russian detachment of General Dannenberg (6 thousand) attacked the Turks on October 23 and, despite their numerical superiority (14 thousand) almost occupied the Turkish fortifications, but was pulled back by General Dannenberg, who considered it impossible to hold Oltenica under the fire of Turkish batteries on the right bank of the Danube . Then Omer Pasha himself returned the Turks to the right bank of the Danube and disturbed our troops only with isolated surprise attacks, to which the Russian troops responded.
At the same time, the Turkish fleet delivered supplies to the Caucasian highlanders, who were acting against Russia at the instigation of the Sultan and England. To prevent this, Admiral Nakhimov, with a squadron of 8 ships, overtook the Turkish squadron, which had taken refuge from bad weather in Sinop Bay. On November 18, 1853, after a three-hour Battle of Sinop, the enemy fleet, including 11 ships, was destroyed. Five Ottoman ships were blown up, the Turks lost up to 4,000 killed and wounded and 1,200 prisoners; The Russians lost 38 officers and 229 lower ranks.
Meanwhile, Omer Pasha, having abandoned offensive operations from Oltenitsa, gathered up to 40 thousand to Kalafat and decided to defeat the weak advanced Lesser Wallachian detachment of General Anrep (7.5 thousand). On December 25, 1853, 18 thousand Turks attacked the 2.5 thousand detachment of Colonel Baumgarten at Cetati, but arriving reinforcements (1.5 thousand) saved our detachment, which had shot all the cartridges, from final death. Having lost up to 2 thousand people, both of our detachments retreated at night to the village of Motsetsei.
After the battle at Chetati, the Lesser Wallachian detachment, reinforced to 20 thousand, settled in apartments near Kalafat and blocked the Turks’ access to Wallachia; further operations of the Crimean War in the European theater in January and February 1854 were limited to minor clashes.
The Crimean War in the Transcaucasian theater in 1853
Meanwhile, the actions of Russian troops in the Transcaucasian theater were accompanied by complete success. Here the Turks, having assembled a 40,000-strong army long before the declaration of the Crimean War, opened military operations in mid-October. The energetic Prince Bebutov was appointed head of the Russian active corps. Having received information about the movement of the Turks towards Alexandropol (Gyumri), Prince Bebutov sent a detachment of General Orbeliani on November 2, 1853. This detachment unexpectedly came across the main forces of the Turkish army near the village of Bayandura and barely escaped to Alexandropol; The Turks, fearing Russian reinforcements, took a position at Bashkadyklar. Finally, on November 6, a manifesto was received about the beginning of the Crimean War, and on November 14, Prince Bebutov moved to Kars.
Another Turkish detachment (18 thousand) on October 29, 1853 approached the Akhaltsykh fortress, but the head of the Akhaltsykh detachment, Prince Andronnikov, with his 7 thousand. On November 14, he himself attacked the Turks and put them to a disorderly flight; the Turks lost up to 3.5 thousand, while our losses were limited to only 450 people.
Following the victory of the Akhaltsykh detachment, the Alexandropol detachment under the command of Prince Bebutov (10 thousand) defeated a 40 thousand-strong Turkish army on November 19 in a strong Bashkadyklar position, and only the extreme fatigue of people and horses did not allow them to develop the success achieved by pursuit. However, the Turks lost up to 6 thousand in this battle, and our troops - about 2 thousand.
Both of these victories immediately raised the prestige of Russian power, and the general uprising that was being prepared in Transcaucasia immediately died down.
Crimean War 1853-1856. Map
Balkan theater of the Crimean War in 1854
Meanwhile, on December 22, 1853, the united Anglo-French fleet entered the Black Sea in order to protect Turkey from the sea and help it supply its ports with the necessary supplies. Russian envoys immediately broke off relations with England and France and returned to Russia. Emperor Nicholas turned to Austria and Prussia with a proposal, in the event of a war with England and France, to maintain strict neutrality. But both of these powers avoided any obligations, refusing at the same time to join the allies; To secure their possessions, they concluded a defensive alliance among themselves. Thus, at the beginning of 1854, it became clear that Russia was left without allies in the Crimean War, and therefore the most decisive measures were taken to strengthen our troops.
By the beginning of 1854, up to 150 thousand Russian troops were located along the Danube and the Black Sea to the Bug. With these forces it was planned to move deep into Turkey, raise an uprising of the Balkan Slavs and declare Serbia independent, but the hostile mood of Austria, which was strengthening its troops in Transylvania, forced us to abandon this bold plan and limit ourselves to crossing the Danube to capture only Silistria and Ruschuk.
In the first half of March, Russian troops crossed the Danube at Galati, Brailov and Izmail, and on March 16, 1854 they occupied Girsovo. A non-stop advance towards Silistria would inevitably lead to the occupation of this fortress, the armament of which had not yet been completed. However, the newly appointed commander-in-chief, Prince Paskevich, had not yet personally arrived at the army, stopped it, and only the insistence of the emperor himself forced him to continue the offensive towards Silistria. The commander-in-chief himself, fearing that the Austrians would cut off the retreat route of the Russian army, proposed returning to Russia.
The stop of Russian troops at Girsov gave the Turks time to strengthen both the fortress itself and its garrison (from 12 to 18 thousand). Approaching the fortress on May 4, 1854 with 90 thousand, Prince Paskevich, still fearing for his rear, positioned his army 5 versts from the fortress in a fortified camp to cover the bridge across the Danube. The siege of the fortress was carried out only against its eastern front, and on the western side the Turks, in full view of the Russians, brought supplies to the fortress. In general, our actions near Silistria bore the imprint of the extreme caution of the commander-in-chief himself, who was also embarrassed by incorrect rumors about the alleged union of the allies with the army of Omer Pasha. On May 29, 1854, shell-shocked during a reconnaissance mission, Prince Paskevich left the army, handing it over to Prince Gorchakov, who energetically led the siege and on June 8 decided to storm the Arab and Peschanoye forts. All orders for the assault had already been made, and two hours before the assault an order was received from Prince Paskevich to immediately lift the siege and move to the left bank of the Danube, which was carried out by the evening of June 13. Finally, according to the terms concluded with Austria, which pledged to support our interests in front of the Western courts, on July 15, 1854, the withdrawal of our troops from the Danube principalities, which had been occupied by Austrian troops since August 10, began. The Turks returned to the right bank of the Danube.
During these actions, the Allies launched a series of attacks on our coastal cities on the Black Sea and, by the way, on Holy Saturday, April 8, 1854, they brutally bombarded Odessa. Then the allied fleet appeared near Sevastopol and headed towards the Caucasus. On land, the allies supported the Ottomans by landing a detachment at Gallipoli to defend Constantinople. These troops were then transported to Varna in early July and moved to Dobruja. Here cholera caused severe devastation in their ranks (from July 21 to August 8, 8 thousand fell ill and 5 thousand of them died).
The Crimean War in the Transcaucasian theater in 1854
Military operations in the spring of 1854 in the Caucasus began on our right flank, where on June 4, Prince Andronnikov, with the Akhaltsykh detachment (11 thousand), defeated the Turks at Cholok. Somewhat later, on the left flank, the Erivan detachment of General Wrangel (5 thousand) attacked 16 thousand Turks on the Chingil Heights on June 17, overthrew them and occupied Bayazet. The main forces of the Caucasian army, i.e. the Alexandropol detachment of Prince Bebutov, moved towards Kars on June 14 and stopped at the village of Kyuryuk-Dara, having the 60-thousand-strong Anatolian army of Zarif Pasha 15 versts ahead of them.
On July 23, 1854, Zarif Pasha went on the offensive, and on the 24th, Russian troops also moved forward, having received false information about the retreat of the Turks. Faced with the Turks, Bebutov lined up his troops in battle formation. A series of energetic infantry and cavalry attacks stopped the Turkish right wing; then Bebutov, after a very stubborn, often hand-to-hand fight, threw back the enemy center, using up almost all his reserves for this. After this, our attacks turned against the Turkish left flank, which had already bypassed our position. The attack was a complete success: the Turks retreated in complete frustration, losing up to 10 thousand; in addition, about 12 thousand bashi-bazouks fled. Our losses amounted to 3 thousand people. Despite the brilliant victory, Russian troops did not dare to begin the siege of Kars without a siege artillery park and in the fall retreated back to Alexandropol (Gyumri).
Defense of Sevastopol during the Crimean War
Panorama of the Defense of Sevastopol (view from Malakhov Kurgan). Artist F. Roubaud, 1901-1904
The Crimean War in the Transcaucasian theater in 1855
In the Transcaucasian theater of war, actions resumed in the second half of May 1855 with our occupation of Ardahan without a fight and an offensive towards Kars. Knowing about the lack of food in Kars, the new commander-in-chief, General Muravyov, limited himself to just a blockade, but, having received news in September about the movement of Omer Pasha’s army transported from European Turkey to the rescue of Kars, he decided to take the fortress by storm. The assault on September 17, although carried out on the most important, but at the same time the strongest, western front (Shorakh and Chakhmakh heights), cost us 7,200 people and ended in failure. The army of Omer Pasha could not advance to Kars due to lack of transportation means, and on November 16 the garrison of Kars surrendered.
British and French attacks on Sveaborg, Solovetsky Monastery and Petropavlovsk
To complete the description of the Crimean War, it is also worth mentioning some minor actions taken against Russia by the Western allies. On June 14, 1854, an allied squadron of 80 ships, under the command of the English admiral Napier, appeared near Kronstadt, then retreated to the Åland Islands, and in October returned to their harbors. On July 6 of the same year, two English ships bombarded the Solovetsky Monastery on the White Sea, unsuccessfully demanding its surrender, and on August 17, an allied squadron also arrived at the port of Petropavlovsky on Kamchatka and, having fired at the city, made a landing, which was soon repulsed. In May 1855, a strong allied squadron was sent to the Baltic Sea for the second time, which, after standing for some time near Kronstadt, went back in the fall; Its combat activities were limited only to the bombing of Sveaborg.
Results of the Crimean War
After the fall of Sevastopol on August 30, military operations in Crimea stopped, and on March 18, 1856, the Parisian world, which ended the long and difficult war of Russia against 4 European states (Turkey, England, France and Sardinia, which joined the allies at the beginning of 1855).
The consequences of the Crimean War were enormous. After it, Russia lost its dominance in Europe, which it had enjoyed since the end of the Napoleonic War of 1812-1815. It has now passed to France for 15 years. The shortcomings and disorganizations revealed by the Crimean War ushered in the era of reforms of Alexander II in Russian history, which renewed all aspects of national life.
