Throughout the early Middle Ages, the Byzantine Empire was the center of a vibrant and unique spiritual and material culture. Its originality lies in the fact that it combined Hellenistic and Roman traditions with the original culture, dating back to ancient times, not only of the Greeks, but also of many other peoples who inhabited the empire - the Egyptians, Syrians, the peoples of Asia Minor and Transcaucasia, the tribes of the Crimea, as well as Slavs who settled in the empire. The Arabs also had a certain influence on it. During the early Middle Ages, the cities of Byzantium remained centers of education, where science and crafts, fine arts and architecture continued to develop based on the achievements of antiquity. Trade and diplomatic relations of Byzantium stimulated the expansion of geographical and natural science knowledge. Developed commodity-money relations gave rise to a complex system of civil law and contributed to the rise of jurisprudence.

The entire history of Byzantine culture is colored by the struggle of the dominant ideology of the ruling classes with opposition movements expressing the aspirations of the broad masses. In this struggle, on the one hand, ideologists of church-feudal culture are opposed to each other, defending the ideal of subordination of the flesh to the spirit, of man to religion, glorifying the ideas of strong monarchical power and a powerful church; on the other hand, representatives of free-thinking, usually dressed in the garb of heretical teachings, defending to a certain extent the freedom of the human person and opposing the despotism of the state and church. Most often these came from opposition-minded urban circles, small feudal lords, the lower clergy and the masses.

The folk culture of Byzantium occupies a special place. Folk music and dance, church and theatrical performances, preserving the features of ancient mysteries, heroic folk epics, satirical fables, exposing and ridiculing the vices of the lazy and cruel rich, cunning monks, corrupt judges - these are the diverse and vibrant manifestations of folk culture. The contribution of folk craftsmen to the creation of monuments of architecture, painting, applied art and artistic crafts is invaluable.

Development of scientific knowledge. Education

In the early period, the old centers of ancient learning were still preserved in Byzantium - Athens, Alexandria, Beirut, Gaza. However, the attack of the Christian Church on ancient pagan education led to the decline of some of them. The scientific center in Alexandria was destroyed, the famous Library of Alexandria was destroyed in a fire, and in 415 fanatical monasticism tore to pieces the outstanding woman scientist, mathematician and philosopher Hypatia. Under Justinian, the higher school in Athens was closed - the last center of ancient pagan science.

Subsequently, Constantinople became the center of education, where in the 9th century. The Magnavra Higher School was created, in which secular sciences were taught along with theology. In 1045, a university was founded in Constantinople, which had two faculties - law and philosophy. A higher medical school was also established there. Lower schools, both church-monastery and private, were scattered throughout the country. In large cities and monasteries there were libraries and sceptoria where books were copied.

The dominance of the scholastic theological worldview could not stifle scientific creativity in Byzantium, although it hampered its development. In the field of technology, especially craft technology, thanks to the preservation of many ancient techniques and skills, Byzantium in the early Middle Ages was significantly ahead of the countries of Western Europe. The level of development of natural sciences was also higher. In mathematics, along with commentary on ancient authors, independent scientific creativity also developed, fueled by the needs of practice - construction, irrigation, navigation. In the IX-XI centuries. In Byzantium they begin to use Indian numerals in Arabic writing. By the 9th century. refers to the activities of the major scientist Lev the Mathematician, who invented the light telegraph system and laid the foundations of algebra, using letter designations as symbols.

In the field of cosmography and astronomy there was a sharp struggle between the defenders of ancient systems and supporters of the Christian worldview. In the VI century. Cosmas Indicopleus (i.e., “who sailed to India”) in his “Christian Topography” set out to refute Ptolemy. His naive cosmogony was based on the biblical idea that the Earth has the shape of a flat quadrangle, surrounded by an ocean and covered by a vault of heaven. However, ancient cosmogonic ideas were preserved in Byzantium into the 9th century. Astronomical observations are carried out, although they are still very often intertwined with astrology. Byzantine scientists achieved significant success in the field of medicine. Byzantine physicians not only commented on the works of Galen and Hippocrates, but also generalized their practical experience.

The needs of craft production and medicine stimulated the development of chemistry. Along with alchemy, the beginnings of genuine knowledge also developed. Antique recipes for the production of glass, ceramics, mosaic smalt, enamels and paints were preserved here. In the 7th century In Byzantium, “Greek fire” was invented - an incendiary mixture that gives a flame that cannot be extinguished by water and even ignites upon contact with it. The composition of the “Greek fire” was kept a deep secret for a long time, and only later was it established that it consisted of oil mixed with quicklime and various resins. The invention of “Greek fire” for a long time provided Byzantium with an advantage in naval battles and largely contributed to its hegemony at sea in the fight against the Arabs.

Wide trade and diplomatic connections of the Byzantines contributed to the development of geographical knowledge. In the “Christian Topography” of Kosma Indikoplov, interesting information about the animal and plant world, trade routes and the population of Arabia, East Africa, and India has been preserved. Valuable geographical information is contained in the writings of Byzantine travelers and pilgrims of later times. In parallel with the expansion of geographical knowledge, there was an acquaintance with the flora and fauna of various countries, summarized in the works of Byzantine natural scientists. By the 10th century includes the creation of an agricultural encyclopedia - “Geoponics”, which summarized the achievements of ancient agronomy.

At the same time, the desire to adapt the achievements of empirical science to religious ideas is increasingly evident in Byzantine culture.

We are not surprised that in Byzantium of the 6th–10th centuries, great attention was paid to works on physics of the Hellenic period: after all, these works appeared precisely then. At this time, physics included the entire body of knowledge about nature, namely physics itself, geography, zoology, botany, mineralogy and medicine.

Historians report that the Byzantines obtained information on natural science from books, in particular from the works of Aristotle. But suddenly it turns out that this interest in the works of the classic required their new editions; that the sequence of arrangement of books within individual works was often disrupted, and their places were mixed up; that the meaning of a number of texts was obscured, and the contents of the lists also did not coincide; that in Byzantium short summaries of Aristotle’s main ideas were made, and these summaries, although they adhered to the text of the originals, were often supplemented with new material, excerpts from the works of later scientists who spoke on the same topic... According to Simplicius, the texts of Aristotle’s “Physics” remaining from his two closest students, Theophrastus and Eudemus, differed significantly from each other.

All this means that in Byzantium the works of Aristotle were not only edited, but, in fact, created anew.

Commentaries by Themistius, Simplicius, John Philoponus, and Olympiodorus on Aristotle and on the writings of other “ancients” have reached us. These comments are invaluable; they greatly facilitate the understanding of science, especially the more difficult passages from Aristotle and others. What does it mean to clarify passages that are difficult to understand? This means writing your work on this topic.

Each of these authors took a different approach to solving the problems facing them. The most famous commentators on Aristotle's works were the students of Ammonius, a professor at the School of Alexandria, Simplicius and John Philoponus. They were distinguished by comprehensive and deep education, independence in solving physical problems and clarity of thinking. At the same time, Simplicius did not go beyond the Neoplatonic tradition in his comments. John Philoponus was a Christian, but despite this, on some theological issues he expressed opinions that significantly diverged from the tenets of Christian doctrine. In a dispute with the pagan Neoplatonist Olympiodorus, John Philoponus denied the eternity of the Universe and proved the identity of the nature of the celestial bodies and objects of the sublunary world.

Themistius relentlessly followed Aristotle. Like his idol, he considered the air surrounding a thrown body to be both moving and setting in motion. On the contrary, such an explanation seemed artificial to Simplicius. He suggested that the throwing projectile imparts movement to it, and not to the air. Nevertheless, Simplicius did not dare to abandon Aristotle's hypothesis.

This concept and a number of other provisions of Aristotle’s natural philosophy were criticized by John Philoponus. He argued that throwing a stone transfers a certain internal force that maintains movement for a certain time to the stone, and not to the air, which does not contribute anything to the movement, and if it does, it contributes very little. Characterizing this force, John Philoponus presented it as incorporeal and having nothing in common with air or any other medium. The speed of the thrown object depends on its value. The resistance of the environment in which it flies can only reduce its speed, which will be maximum in emptiness. In medieval Latin texts, the force that is imparted to a moving body was called impetus (impulse, pressure, pressure, forward striving). The idea of ​​impetus was an anticipation of the concepts of momentum and kinetic energy.

It is quite possible that John Philoponus conducted some experiments with objects falling in various environments. Simplicius also experimented. Studying the question raised by Aristotle about the change in the weight of a body as it approaches a “natural” place, he, based on his experiments, denied the difference between an empty wineskin and a wineskin filled with air. Aristotle considered the weight of an inflated waterskin to be greater than that of an empty, uninflated one.

The mathematicians Eutokius, Anthimius of Thrall and Isidore of Miletus, who knew not only the works of Archimedes, but also the works of Heron, in particular his Mechanics, showed great interest in the problems of mechanics. The latter applied their knowledge of the laws of mechanics, creatively mastered, in the construction of the Church of St. Sofia.

The knowledge of the Byzantines in the field of optics - the science of vision, catoptrics - the theory of reflection of rays from mirror surfaces and dioptrics - the study of optical measurements, was based on the works of Aristotle, Euclid, Heron, Ptolemy.

Euclid's treatise "Optics", outlining the theory of perspective, was processed and republished by Theon of Alexandria. The principles of reflection of parabolic mirrors were formulated in the work of Anthimius from Thrall “On Incendiary Mirrors”. Olympiodor took a new approach to solving the problem of the rectilinear passage of light rays. Unlike Heron, who in his “Catoptrics” established the dependence of the straightness of light rays on the infinitely high speed of their propagation, the later Byzantine philosopher proved the expediency of the structure of everything in nature, which, according to him, does not tolerate any excesses. This would be the case if she did not choose the shortest path for the passage of light.

Thus, in Christian Byzantium, certain provisions of Hellenic scientists were criticized and some correct guesses were made on a number of issues in physics. But the theory of these disciplines developed slowly. The Byzantines, historians believe, were more interested in the practical side of the matter; they tried to apply the achievements of their predecessors to solve pressing technical problems, and in the field of theory they just tried to comprehend the ideas expressed by the ancients.

Orthodox Christian scientists began to view physics as an auxiliary science in the service of religious metaphysics. They also had their own view of nature. If for the Hellenes nature is a real reality, then for Christians it is the creation of God, His symbol, the embodiment of His ideas. In all natural phenomena they saw the action of divine providence, an illustration of religious and moral truths.

However, the presence of two systems of understanding nature - Hellenic and Christian (allegorical-didactic) could not but lead to the emergence of an idea synthesized from their elements. And it appeared in Byzantium in the work of Michael Psellos “General Instruction” and in the monody he wrote to console those affected by the earthquake in September 1063. Although he considered God the creator of the visible world, nature appears in him in a different capacity; it appears separate from the Creator who created it, existing independently, independently of Him. She lives and acts, obeying only the laws that were given to her at creation and which can be cognized by man. For Psellus, nature is an object of independent consideration. He strives to provide a rational explanation for the natural phenomena of the surrounding world.

Psellus, talking about various natural phenomena, points to the root cause and immediate cause that caused them. Remaining a man of his time, by the first cause he meant God, and in his explanation of the causal relationship of natural phenomena he tried to combine the laws of Aristotle’s “Physics” with the actions of divine providence. In his work “General Instruction”, a treatise on meteorology, a commentary on Aristotle’s “Physics” and other works, he paid much attention to the development of physical problems. He collected and processed information about matter, movement, color, echo, rain, thunder, lightning, etc.

The Byzantines expressed great interest in the most diverse manifestations of nature; not only scientists, but also historians, hagiographers, and authors of theological works considered it their duty to talk about atmospheric phenomena, earthquakes and other natural disasters, to reveal their essence and causes.

Patriarch Nicephorus wrote about menacing atmospheric phenomena, falling stars, will-o'-the-wisps, and comets. He considered them a punishment from the Creator for the insults inflicted on him by the iconoclasts. At the same time, he criticized, calling the people who tried to give natural scientific explanations for this “artsmen.”

Anna Komnena compared certain events of her father's reign with physical phenomena. Thus, narrating the arrival of Alexios I in Thessalonica, she compares the inhabitants of the surrounding regions heading towards him with heavy bodies that tend to the center. John of Damascus in “The Source of Knowledge” discusses the origin of thermal waters. Patriarch Photius in the “Library” also touches on physical issues and primarily focuses his attention on the nature of earthquakes. Simeon Seth, in his “General Review of the Principles of Natural Science,” included data on the substance of heaven and earth, matter and form, place and time, soul and spirit, and the five senses. Eustratius of Nicea in his writings also dwells on the origin of rain, snow, hail, thunder, lightning, earthquakes, and thermal waters.

When talking about natural phenomena, the Byzantines paid great attention to their description, rather than to the study of patterns. The concept of experiment was alien to them. All controversial issues were resolved speculatively. The main source of their knowledge about the world around them was not nature itself or observations of its phenomena, but books, primarily the works of Aristotle and his commentators: Olympiodorus, Proclus, John Philoponus and others.

The cause of earthquakes has been discussed for a long time. The Orthodox considered them to be God's punishment for the sins of mankind. Scientists stood on the point of view of Aristotle, who developed the theory according to which earthquakes are caused by air accumulated in cracks in the Earth. And Patriarch Photius believed that they are generated by an excess of water in the bowels of the Earth, and not by an abundance of air and not by sins. However, this did not prevent him from interpreting the earthquake as a miracle in other works.

According to Michael Psellus, earthquakes are caused by God, but their immediate cause is the air emanating from the bowels of the Earth, which, due to its great hardness, becomes denser and rushes out under pressure, which causes the Earth to shake. Also, both Simeon Seth and Eustratius of Nicea initially indicate the supernatural cause of earthquakes, arguing that nothing happens in nature without divine permission, and then they remember the cause of the physical order.

Eustratius of Nicaea also explains the origin of thermal waters by natural causes. He categorically rejects the opinion of Ephraim the Syrian, who considered them to be the source of Hell, on the grounds that if water flowed from hell, it would be harmful and would bring death and destruction. In fact, it has therapeutic and even healing properties.

Eustratius of Nicea adhered to the concept according to which the body of the Earth is penetrated by air, fire and water veins, through which air, fire and water flow respectively. Fire channels located near water channels sometimes heat the water flowing in them to a boil, which in this state appears on the surface. Air veins adjacent to aquifers, on the contrary, cool the water in them, and it, becoming cold, pours out from the sources. According to custom, this concept was also attributed to Aristotle.

Using their own observations, Byzantine scientists solved the problems of sea water salinity. Thus, Simeon Seth explains the reasons for this salinity by constant evaporation occurring from the surface of the sea, which makes it denser, and as a result the water acquires a salty taste. He compares this phenomenon to the secretion of salty sweat by the human body, despite the fact that he consumes only fresh water. The theoretical provisions for such conclusions are again attributed to Aristotle without any basis. However, Simeon Seth also refers to the intervention of divine providence, allegedly by whose will the water, becoming salty, does not rot and does not emit a stench.

Byzantine thinkers also thought about why during a thunderstorm a person first sees light and only after some time hears sound. Mikhail Psell tried to explain this phenomenon by natural causes: the eye catches light before the ear catches sound, because the eye has a convex shape, and the ear is hollow. Simeon Seth gave a more rational explanation: sound takes time to spread, but light does not need it.

The concepts of the physical structure of the surrounding world presented in the works of Michael Psellus, Simeon Seth and Eustratius of Nicaea differ in many ways from biblical ideas about the structure of the universe, and in their essential features coincide with the work “On Origin and Destruction,” again attributed to Aristotle.

All the works of these scientists, devoted to the consideration of the physical phenomena of the surrounding world, testify to an attempt to harmonize Hellenic teaching with Christian doctrine, and Christian doctrine with the principles of the Hellenic worldview. However, rationalism, which arose in science in the second half of the 11th century, was limited. Only that which did not come into obvious conflict with the dogmas of Christianity was accepted.

During the Palaiologan period, after Latin domination, the development of scientific thought continued in Byzantium. Let us mention one of the scientists of this time, Theodore Metochites. He, they say, already saw the inferiority of the ideas attributed to Aristotle, although in fact he criticized a certain canonized teaching of the past period, which was both more logical and correct. Metochites accused Aristotelianism of underestimating mathematics. Analyzing the writings of Aristotle's adept Khumna, Metochites showed that his thinking in the field of physics, although it evidences some borrowings from Plato, is nevertheless static and entirely based on the qualitative physics of Aristotle. Metochites reproaches his opponent for ignorance of Plato, for missing one of his most important premises - quantitative aspect theory of elements, which ultimately is a consequence of underestimating the importance of mathematics.

This idea of ​​Metochites was a kind of herald of the scientific revolution of the 17th century, which significantly expanded the use of mathematical methods in the study of the physical world.

But we must keep in mind that we do not know much of Byzantine science, because many books (sometimes together with scientists) were exported to Western Europe in the 13th–15th centuries, and there they were used without reference to the original source.

Chronological framework of the Middle Ages: middle. V – gray XV centuries Features of the period: contact between Western and Eastern cultures, mutual borrowing of scientific, technical and cultural achievements. A specific tradition of medieval culture was the transfer of technical knowledge and skills by inheritance. With the growth of population and cities, the specialization of craftsmen begins and their unification into workshops, which leads to mass production, at the same time, the opportunities for introducing technical innovations decreased, since the right to make inventions belonged to the craftsmen, and they, using apprentices, did not need to improve production .

Technical achievements of medieval Europe and Byzantium. After the death of ancient civilization, Europe slowed down in its development. Much of the ancient heritage was forgotten, skills and abilities were lost. Craft skills were preserved in metallurgy, in the manufacture of tools and weapons, produced in craft workshops that worked for new customers in accordance with their tastes. In some places, antique machines for lifting heavy objects, pumps for pumping water, and water mills were preserved, sometimes supplemented with new devices.

With the predominance of manual technology, some mechanical devices appeared, then the first machines. The engine was the power of man and animals, water, wind. For the needs of construction and mining production, lifting, road, and earth-moving mechanisms (lifting devices, hand and foot or pedal machines: lathes, sharpening, spinning and weaving) were required.

The first machines can be considered a mill and a clock. The Romans were familiar with the water mill, the use of which has been revived in Europe since the 6th century. This machine has been modified to increase its efficiency. It was used to pump out water, as an engine to operate machine tools and other mechanisms. Later, from the East, the windmill penetrated, which was used first in Arab Spain, then in France, England, and Holland. The revolution in technology is associated with mechanical watches, which became the first automatic machine. First, striking wheel clocks appeared in the 13th century. a weight mechanism with a load tightening is used, a ratchet is used as a stroke regulator. In 1335, a tower clock was created at the Visconti Palace (Milan), by the 15th century. A pocket watch appears.

Some of the innovations were the result of borrowing from other peoples, mainly from the Arabs. Such innovations include gunpowder, the emergence of which led to the creation of gunpowder production and the development of gunpowder granulation technology. The German alchemist Berthold Schwartz created gunpowder from saltpeter, sulfur and charcoal. The first European firearms appeared. These weapons changed the way warfare was fought and led to the development of new foundry technologies.

During the period of the Crusades (1096-1261), the technology of making paints, paper, Damascus steel, rice, sugar cane, etc. penetrated into Europe. New productions were organized, for example, the borrowing of paper (XII century) led to the emergence of their own workshops for its production. Printing is associated with paper, which created new opportunities for the exchange of information, mass production of documents, books, and maps. A set of means for book printing was created (collapsible metal type; molds for standard casting of letters; an alloy of lead, antimony and tin for letters; a press with a system for its maintenance). In Europe, printing was introduced in the 40s of the 15th century. in Germany by Johannes Gutenberg.

By the 11th century. In the West, the technique of making window glass, the art of mosaics and wall painting were revived. Venice was especially famous, where the production of glass mirrors was established, which were exported to all European countries. On the basis of glassmaking, lens grinding arose, and from the 14th century. - production of optical glass for glasses.

Progress in natural science and technology is associated with the development of cities. Appearing as a result of the growth of the productive forces of feudal society, the division of labor, and the separation of crafts from agriculture, the city became the center of crafts and trade. Cities are growing rapidly due to the massive influx of peasants breaking away from agriculture.

The development of European countries required the improvement of all types of communication. Hence the widespread use of the horse, the invention of the stirrup led to the spread of horse riding. The advent of the collar made it possible to use horses on arable land instead of bulls. Horse-drawn carts and carriages became the main means of land transport. The needs of the economy contributed to the revival of maritime shipping. Capacious sailing ships began to be built on the Mediterranean Sea, and the invention of the magnetic compass (XII-XIII centuries) expanded the possibilities of navigation.

Among the characteristic features of architecture, one can note the widespread use of fired bricks, tiles, and cement. A new architectural style is being developed. In the 11th-12th centuries, Gothic style became widespread, the birthplace of which was France. The largest Gothic monument is Notre Dame Cathedral. In Gothic architecture, a new vault design was invented, characterized by lightness, openwork and variety of shapes.

The decline of ancient civilization in Europe almost did not affect the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire. In many technical achievements, due to a more stable situation and proximity to the East, Byzantium was ahead of Europe. Having picked up the tradition of the ancient production of leather “in Pergamon style,” the Byzantines began producing the writing material “parchment,” which replaced papyrus scrolls from the 6th century.

In cities, the construction of large buildings continued to be based on ancient traditions. The famous building is the St. Sophia Cathedral in Constantinople. The layout, building materials, technologies, fixtures, building system - everything retained the features of ancient construction.

The Byzantines introduced silk to Europe when they managed to break the Chinese monopoly. Raw silk processed in the workshops of Constantinople was exported to the West. Later, silk business will begin to develop in Italy and France. But the production of more expensive fabrics remained a Byzantine prerogative, for example, gold brocade.

Byzantium was famous for its handicrafts made according to ancient recipes: glass, ceramics, mosaic smalt, enamels and paints. Having preserved the military art of the previous era, the Byzantine army had first-class military equipment and weapons, and Byzantium was also able to maintain a combat-ready navy. Particular glory and power came from the invention of a mixture known as “Greek fire.” Its composition included sulfur, linseed oil, rock salt, resin, oil, quicklime, crushed baked sand, tar and saltpeter. Byzantines in the 7th century. They built a catapult with three gushing pipes to splash out this liquid. The composition of the “Greek fire” was kept secret, and this invention provided Byzantium with an advantage in naval battles for a long time.

Medieval science of Europe. The science of the Middle Ages differed from the previous stage, the reason was the spread of Christianity. Religion was the dominant form of comprehension of existence, so in the Middle Ages there were no significant breakthroughs in science. On the other hand, churches and monasteries were agents of literacy and education. It was in the monastery libraries that the scientific heritage was preserved. But this monopoly on scholarship and education provoked scientific thinking, limited by religious dogmas and prone to scholasticism. The source of knowledge for the medieval scientist was the divine Word. The science of the divine becomes the most worthy of study, while all other sciences are subordinate to it, i.e. become “handmaids of theology.” But despite all the difficulties in the development of scientific knowledge, there was a connection between science and practice and the formation of experimental science. This was facilitated by the development of mechanics, caused by the evolution of craft production and the emergence of manufactories.

Perhaps the most significant sciences during this period were alchemy and astrology, although they contradicted Christianity. Alchemists in Western Europe tried to turn ordinary metals into precious ones and obtain the elixir of youth. In the process of searching for a miraculous remedy, methods for producing glass, enamel, paints, and medicines were discovered or improved. Alchemy marked the beginning of the emergence of chemistry as a science. The birthplace of alchemy was the East; Europeans became acquainted with it through the Arabs who captured Spanish territories. The ideas of Arab scientists were picked up by researchers - Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon, Arnold of Villanova, Raymond Lull and others. They knew how to chemically separate substances into their components, carry out sublimation, purification, and sequential combination of initial reagents into more complex substances. As a result, technologies and skills were developed for producing a number of chemical substances that have found use in everyday life and production: acids, alcohol, essential oils, incendiary compositions, soap from a mixture of fats with detergent ingredients, gunpowder and paints.

After the Crusades, scientific ideas and views began to penetrate from the East. The works of Arab scientists were translated into Latin. Latin was used in writing documents, reports, letters and scientific literature; Latin was a pan-European “scientific” language. However, the use of Latin contributed to the fact that for many years this literature was the property of the privileged elite of feudal society.

At the end of XII - beginning. XIII century popular European schools began to transform into universities. In the Middle Ages, universities were called studium, which meant an educational institution with a universal program. Education was based on three main areas: mastery of words (eloquence, the art of persuasion, the art of interpreting text - grammar, rhetoric, dialectics); building a coherent and fairly clear picture of the world within the framework of Christian doctrine (theology); justification for a righteous life (ethics, economics, law, politics). Universities had different specializations, but, as a rule, there were 4 faculties: general education (faculty of arts); medicine; rights; theology. The first universities in Europe were formed in Bologna, Paris, and Oxford.

In Byzantium, the ancient tradition was never interrupted. Manuscripts of ancient authors were collected, excerpts were made from them, and through Byzantium the works of Greek authors were distributed to eastern countries. The Byzantines treated education, knowledge and science with respect. Many emperors wanted to be considered enlightened, so they provided patronage to scientists and helped preserve the heritage of ancient science. But the church brought theology to a prominent place in the system of knowledge, which limited the development of sciences. But there were exceptions, for example, the work of the Byzantine scientist Leo the Mathematician led to the laying of the foundations of algebra, the emergence of advanced ideas, in particular the light telegraph and cunning mechanisms for the imperial palace in Constantinople. In the middle of the 9th century. under his leadership a higher school was opened. The teachers of this school began to collect ancient books kept in the monasteries. The famous grammarian Photius compiled a collection of retellings of 280 ancient manuscripts.

In the Middle Ages, human consciousness changes, the idea arises that man is the master of the world, and he can remake this world to suit his needs. There is a shift away from contemplation to experiment and practice. Systematization and classification of knowledge begins, encyclopedias appear. The thirst for knowledge was encouraged by medieval schools and the university, all of which led to a high level of mental discipline in the late Middle Ages.

Total:

Given a certain one-sidedness in the development of European society and the death of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century, the achievements of the civilization of the Middle Ages in the field of technology were great. An important milestone was the 10th-11th centuries, associated with the formation of cities as centers of craft production and trade. A new breakthrough in the development of productive forces was made in the 14th-15th centuries, when technical achievements spread across the continent, and the progress of crafts pushed the development of agriculture.

Medieval science was inferior to ancient science, but gradually progressive trends began to develop in it. Discoveries that found application in production played a certain role. For example, printing played a revolutionary role, becoming an important factor in technical, social and intellectual progress. Along with looms, mills and optical instruments, clocks formed the technical foundation on which “systematic experimental science” began to emerge. The main results of the development of science and technology in the Middle Ages are: the combination of science with practice, the development of mechanics, the development of handicraft production and the emergence of manufactories. The scope of application of water and windmills is expanding. In military affairs they use throwing, battering and siege towers, incendiary and explosive means, gunpowder, and firearms. Paper production is being improved, an alphabet is being developed, and books are being printed.

Thus, in the Middle Ages in Europe, the number of inventions and discoveries increased at an increasing pace, and qualified technical personnel were formed. There is no doubt that the technical achievements of the Middle Ages determined the development of scientific thought during the Renaissance.

The process of formation of Byzantine culture lasted several centuries, starting from the late ancient era until the 9th-10th centuries. Byzantine art, like the culture of other countries of medieval states, was a complex, but still unified system of cultural values. Changes occurring in one sphere of culture immediately affected the other, although general phenomena, the struggle between the old and the new, and the emergence of new trends occurred differently in different branches of culture.

Education

Since the Eastern Roman Empire in the IV-V centuries. was not subjected to barbarian invasions, its old centers of ancient science survived - Athens, Alexandria, Beirut,

Gaza; new ones were also created. In Byzantium at the beginning of the Middle Ages there were more educated people than in Western Europe. In city schools they taught reading, writing, counting, and studied the poems of Homer, the tragedies of Aeschylus and Sophocles, although the children of the rich studied in such schools. A commission created in Constantinople, which included the best experts in Greek and Latin, searched for rare books that were copied for the imperial library. Byzantium became the state in which the first higher school in Europe was opened. It began to function in the 9th century. in Constantinople. A higher medical school was also established here. Even then, medical care for the city’s population was thought out. Each doctor in the capital was assigned a specific area of ​​the city in which he treated patients.

Scientific knowledge

Byzantine geographers achieved success: they skillfully drew maps of the country and seas, plans of city blocks and buildings, which was still unattainable for the West. At the beginning of this stage, scientific creativity did not freeze in Byzantium. In the 4th century. Prominent mathematicians, researchers in the field of astronomy and astrology, as well as optics worked here. There have been significant advances in medicine. Doctor Oribasius(326-403) compiled a medical encyclopedia, which included 70 books. It contained extensive extracts from the works of ancient physicians, as well as the author’s own conclusions and generalizations.

After Christianity was established as the state religion, the best representatives of science began to be persecuted. Hypatia died, and Oribasius managed to escape with difficulty. Scientific centers were destroyed: in 489, at the insistence of the bishops, the school in Ephesus was closed, in 529 - the school in Athens - one of the largest centers of Greek education. At the end of the 4th century. Fanatic monks destroyed a significant part of the Library of Alexandria. At the same time, to spread Christianity, church theological schools, and higher ones at that, were created.

With the affirmation of the positions of the church, science becomes theological, which is especially evident in the field of natural sciences. In the middle of the 6th century. monk Kosma Indicoplov wrote "Christian Topography" in which he recognized the Ptolemaic system as incorrect and contrary to the Bible. According to Cosmas, the shape of the Earth is a flat quadrangle, surrounded by an ocean and covered with a vault of heaven, where paradise is located. This work was distributed not only in Byzantium, but also in the West, as well as in Ancient Rus'.

In the VI-VII centuries. In Byzantium, alchemy dominated, searching for the “divine elixir”, with the help of which it is possible to turn any metals into gold, cure various diseases, and restore youth. At the same time, the chemical craft developed - the production of paints for painting and dyeing fabrics, ceramics, mosaics and enamels, which were widely used in Byzantine fine art and textile production.

Most medical works of this period attempted to combine medicine with theology. Only a few doctors continued to defend the achievements of ancient science and generalized their own practice. Among them Alexander Trallsky, studied pathology and therapy of internal diseases. His works were subsequently translated into Latin, Syriac, Arabic and Hebrew. Pavel Eginsky- compiler of a large encyclopedia, which later enjoyed authority among the Arabs, primarily on surgery and obstetrics.

Despite the lack of sources, it is known that already at the end of the 7th century. the Byzantines invented "Greek fire"- an incendiary mixture of gunpowder, resin and saltpeter, which had the ability to burn on water. This helped the Byzantines defeat their enemies in naval battles. “Greek fire” was widely used during the siege of fortresses in the 7th-15th centuries. Byzantine scholar Leo Mathematician improved the light telegraph. Doctor Nikita compiled a collection on surgery (9th century). There were a number of historical works in which the social struggle of this period was reflected from the position of the ruling class.

In the 9th century. In Constantinople, the highest secular school, closed in the 7th century, was restored.

Throughout its history, Byzantium was a multi-ethnic state. Byzantine culture combined the achievements of many peoples who inhabited it (Greeks, Syrians, Romans, Copts, Armenians, Georgians, Cilicians, Thracians, Cappadocians, Dacians, Slavs, Cumans, Arabs, etc.). However, the Byzantines did not limit themselves to simply assimilating the knowledge acquired in previous centuries, and in a number of areas they took certain steps forward.

Particular attention was paid to those areas of knowledge that were closely related to practice, primarily medicine, agricultural production, construction, and navigation. At the same time, the basis of all sciences was not ancient philosophy, but theology. Establishing itself on the ruins of the ancient world, Christianity in Byzantium supplanted the life-affirming pagan religion of the Greeks.

For a long time, paganism existed alongside Christianity. Many major church figures of Byzantium in the 4th-5th centuries. studied in pagan schools and subsequently actively fought against some of the prejudices of Christians against Greco-Roman ancient literature. Thus, the prominent theologian and bishop of Caesarea of ​​Cappadocia, Basil the Great (c. 330-379), was educated at the highest pagan school in Athens. In his writings, he spoke with great respect about the ancient cultural heritage and convincingly argued that ancient literature in many ways anticipated the advent of Christianity. Moreover, Basil the Great and other early Christian writers pointed out the need for Christians to receive secular education: in their opinion, it would contribute to a better understanding of “Scripture” and its interpretation using the techniques and means of ancient education. Calling themselves Romans and their empire Romean, the Christian Byzantines were proud to preserve the cultural heritage of Hellas and Rome - so powerful was the historical inertia of the ancient world. However, only that which contributed to the strengthening of Christianity was selected from the ancient heritage. In the field of natural science, the main data were drawn from the works of Aristotle (“Physics”, “History of Animals”, “On the Parts of Animals”, “On the Movement of Animals”, “On the Soul”, etc.). All of them were repeatedly commented on by early Byzantine authors in order to make them accessible to the reading public.

The so-called “Six Days”, based on the biblical tale of the creation of the world in six days, became a kind of encyclopedia of natural science in the early Byzantine period. The main goal of the “Conversations on the Six Days” was to present the Christian teaching about the structure of the Universe and to refute the physical theories of antiquity. The most famous were the “Six Days” of Basil the Great and George Pisis. Engaging in the development of philosophical and theological problems and polemicizing with ancient writers, they borrowed from antiquity a variety of information on natural science, both real (about plants, birds, fish, reptiles, land animals, etc.) and fantastic (about sacred geese, virgin birth of offspring from a kite and a silkworm caterpillar - the thesis of the immaculate conception, etc.).

Valuable information about the fauna of Egypt, Ethiopia, Arabia, Ceylon and India is contained in the XI book of “Christian Topography” (c. 549) by Cosmas Indicoplov (i.e., “The Navigator to India”). Along with this, it stated that the Earth is a plane, surrounded by an ocean and covered with a vault of heaven, where paradise is located.

Having become the ideology of the Middle Ages, Christianity had a decisive influence on social and political processes. The state doctrine of glorifying the Christian monarchy and the cult of the Byzantine emperor as the head of the entire Christian world had a huge influence on the entire social and ideological life of Byzantium (ideology, culture, philosophy, history, literature, art and various fields of knowledge, including medicine).