The beginning of the 19th century was a time of cultural and spiritual upsurge in Russia. The Patriotic War of 1812 accelerated the growth of the national self-awareness of the Russian people and its consolidation. The growth of national self-awareness of the people during this period had a huge impact on the development of literature, fine arts, theater and music. The autocratic serf system with its class policy held back the process of development of Russian culture. Children of non-noble origin received their primary education in parish schools. Gymnasiums were created for the children of nobles and officials, they gave the right to enter the university. In the first half of the 19th century, seven universities were founded in Russia. In addition to the existing Moscow University, Dorpat, Vilna, Kazan, Kharkov, St. Petersburg and Kiev universities were established. Higher government officials were trained in privileged educational institutions - lyceums. Old Petersburg, left to us as a legacy by Rastrelli, Zakharov, Voronikhin, Montferrand, Rossi and other outstanding architects, is a masterpiece of world architecture. In the works of the great poet one can hear the highly patriotic pathos of love for the motherland and faith in its power, an echo of the events of the Patriotic War of 1812, a magnificent, truly sovereign image of the motherland. A. S. Pushkin is a brilliant poet, prose writer and playwright, publicist and historian. All that he created are classic examples of Russian words and poetry. The poet bequeathed to his descendants: “It is not only possible, but also necessary, to be proud of the glory of your ancestors... Respect for the past is the feature that distinguishes education from savagery...” Even during Pushkin’s life, N.V. Gogol began to gain wide popularity. Gogol’s acquaintance with Pushkin took place in 1831, at the same time “Evenings on a Farm near Dekanka” was published in two parts in St. Petersburg. The first printed form of “The Inspector General” appeared in 1836.
The culture of the 19th century is a culture of freedom, activity, initiative and efficiency. It was in this century that human thought received the broadest scope for freedom of expression. However, the framework of the previous century was also valued. Rigidity manifested itself in the way people treated each other. The romanticized criteria of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and the passions and sentiments of the eighteenth were replaced by strict mercantilism. Financial status and wealth become a higher level than human feelings or spiritual and moral values. The dominance of sober calculation is clearly expressed.
19th century culture - main features
The first half of the nineteenth century for Europe was a time of rapid development of manufactures and industry, as well as active social transformation. People of art tried to convey through their creativity the images and trends of the new time that they captured and interpreted. The beginning of the century was marked by the collapse of artistic principles born in past centuries and the destruction of old subjects.
France is a trendsetter
For several centuries in a row, France has been considered a trendsetter throughout Europe. The culture of the 19th century bears the distinctive features of French views. So-called Salons began to be held in Paris, where specially selected works of painters were exhibited. The public discussed their works, and magazines and newspapers published numerous reviews. The artistic culture of the 19th century transformed along with society. The main themes were cities, houses, rooms, dishes, dresses, etc. Usually, the World Industrial Exhibition was also held in Paris (about once every couple of years), where paintings and sculpture were demonstrated along with new technologies.
Nineteenth-century Western European architecture
The rapid development of industry also caused a rapid influx of people into cities. In fact, megacities were already appearing. In the mid-19th century, the appearance of many cities in Western Europe changed dramatically. The beginning of a system of radial and main streets was laid, which replaced the medieval isolation. Industrial enterprises began to spring up like mushrooms after rain in the suburbs and on the outskirts. European culture of the 19th century, in particular architectural solutions, largely depended on industrial progress. The emergence of new materials (reinforced concrete, steel, cast iron) has made adjustments to the construction of buildings.
Eclecticism is the basis of the culture of Western Europe in the 19th century
It was eclecticism as an architectural style based on decorative forms that began to triumph at that time. The culture of the 19th century was already “prepared” by neo-Gothic, classicism, baroque and rococo, neo-Renaissance and Romanesque-Byzantine style. The word “eclecticos” itself, translated from Greek, means “chooser,” which perfectly characterizes the direction in art of the nineteenth century, reflecting the psychology of a contemporary of that period, who considered his own era and civilization to be simply the pinnacle of history. The culture of the 19th century is based precisely on the apology of such principles and views.
XIX century occupies a special place in the cultural history of Russia. Russia has contributed wonderful works of literature, painting, and music to the world cultural fund. The rise of Russian culture was so great that it allows us to call this era the golden age of Russian culture.
The Decembrists' speech in 1825 led to the emergence of a spirit of revolutionary change. Literature took first place in terms of influence on Russian society, reflecting various aspects of social life, and contributed to the development of public consciousness. Magazines reflecting literary trends of various styles had a huge influence on public life. The sentimentalism of N. Karamzin and V. Zhukovsky replaced the classicism of G. Derzhavin and advocated the rapprochement of the literary language with the spoken language. After the War of 1812, romanticism came, responding to the mood in society and finding its expression in the ballad. The poem was the second form of romantic literature. In it, reality appeared in a bifurcated form (“Demon” by M. Lermontov). The lyrics of Pushkin, Baratynsky, Lermontov, Tyutchev became the highest achievement of Russian romanticism in literature. After the War of 1812 ideas of patriotism, service to the Motherland, and a sense of national identity were formed in society, which were reflected in the art of the first half of the 19th century. The historical genre has gained particular popularity, landscape painting has become much more emotional and acquired a lively flavor: sunny, full of living warmth works by S. Shchedrin, seascapes by I. Aivazovsky, small soulful landscapes in which the virgin Russian nature is glorified, by I. Shishkin. In the second half of the 19th century. realism is manifested in painting, the representatives of which tried to overcome the canons of academic classicism, which led to the emergence of a new direction - the “revolt of the thirteen”. The sculpture still remained faithful to classicism, remaining associated with architectural creativity, gradually giving preference to realistic directions: P. Klodt (sculpture of equestrian groups on the Anichkov Bridge). Late classicism, predominant in architecture, gradually gave its rights to eclecticism. The era of urban planning has begun. Based on monuments of ancient Russian architecture, the building of the Historical Museum in Moscow (O. Sherwood) and the Church of the Resurrection “on Blood” in St. Petersburg (A. Parland) were built. By the end of the 19th century. Art Nouveau style began to appear.
Cultural process at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. called "decadence". The Italian writer F. Marineti founded futurism in 1909, later a new society of expressionists “The Blue Rider”, Dadaism, Audiism, and Cubism emerged. Styles and methods in the culture of the 20th century deviate from the classical techniques of artistic creativity, their diversity is called modernism, which united various creative understandings of the characteristics of the time of decadence. Realism, existing in parallel with modernism, manifested itself in different ways, but most clearly as neorealism, especially in cinema (L. Visconti, M. Antonioni, R. Rossellini, St. Kramer, A. Kurosawa, A. Wajda). The names of A. Rimbaud, P. Verlaine, O. Wilde are associated with the symbolism that represented the decadent literature of the turn of the century. One of the leading literary movements of the mid-20th century. is existentialism. As a literary movement, it arose in France (J. P. Sartre, A. Camus) and asserted “pure” unmotivated action, individualism, and reflected the loneliness of a person in an absurd world hostile to him. As a challenge to society, as a consistent destruction of the real image that reflects the world by familiar means, so-called abstractionism arose - an extreme form of modernism. At its origins are V. Kandinsky, K. Malevich, P. Klee and others. It was replaced in the 60s. avant-gardeism, pop art and postmodernism arrived.
Economic and cultural development took place in Russia throughout the 19th century. in conditions of maintaining autocracy (unlimited monarchy). The emperor had full legislative and executive power. At the beginning of the century, the State Council and ministries were created. The government of Emperor Alexander I (1801-1825) carried out some liberal reforms before the Patriotic War of 1812. These include measures to develop the education system. This was the last period of the policy of “enlightened absolutism”. Its essence is an attempt to adapt the autocratic-serf system to the requirements of modernity. The ideology of “enlightened absolutism” emphasized “enlightening minds” and “improving morals,” softening laws and religious tolerance. However, the scope of the reforms carried out was narrow. Development of the education system, encouragement of industry, “patronage of the sciences and arts” - but all this under the strict supervision of the bureaucracy and the police.
In 1811-1815 there was a turn towards reaction and mysticism. Militarism and protective tendencies came to the fore. Their bearer was the all-powerful temporary worker Arakcheev. Military settlements arise, designed to strengthen the military power of the empire without special costs. Russia enters the “Holy Alliance” - a kind of “international” of monarchs helping each other in the fight against the revolutionary movement. This policy caused discontent among the advanced part of the nobility, which created underground revolutionary organizations. The noble revolutionaries dreamed of turning Russia into either a constitutional monarchy or a republic, and abolishing serfdom. The movement ended with an unsuccessful uprising on December 14, 1825. The Decembrists were defeated and Nicholas I (1825-1855) ascended the throne.
The policy of the new emperor, who did not trust the nobles and relied on the bureaucracy and the police, was reactionary. He suppressed the Polish uprising of 1830-1831. and helped defeat the revolution in Hungary (intervention of 1849). Individual reforms (financial, publication of the Code of Laws, improvement of management of state peasants) were combined with the merciless suppression of the opposition. Militarism, bribery, red tape in the courts, lawlessness and arbitrariness - these are the features of the “Nikolaev system”, which led the country to military defeat.
With the accession to the throne of Alexander II (1855-1881), the so-called "thaw". Overdue reforms were discussed in society, the Decembrists were amnestied, and press rights were expanded. In 1861, serfdom was abolished, and new reforms soon followed - the abolition of corporal punishment, the introduction of jury trials, and the establishment of elected local government (zemstvo). However, the “crowning of the edifice” of reforms, as liberals called it, the introduction of a constitution and parliament in Russia did not follow. Since 1866 (the unsuccessful assassination attempt on the emperor), the government turned to reaction.
Meanwhile, among educated youth of different classes (the so-called commoners), the ideas of populism (the socialism of N.G. Chernyshevsky and others) became increasingly widespread. Discontent grew and underground organizations emerged. In 1874 the so-called “going to the people” is a propaganda movement. It failed. The people did not follow the socialists, but the police caught them. In response, the revolutionaries took the path of terror. The end of this path was the assassination of Alexander II on March 1, 1881.
The experience of the Patriotic War for the first time significantly brought the elite class closer to the common people, temporarily making the social gap between them less significant than national priorities. V.G. Belinsky wrote about 1812 as the era with which “a new life began for Russia,” seeing the meaning of these changes not only “in external greatness and splendor,” but primarily in the internal development in society of “civics and education.” The idea of the responsibility of the nobility to its people, new for Russia, which strengthened the influence of socio-political European thought of the Enlightenment, created another cultural phenomenon of the 19th century - the Decembrist movement. Decembrism in Russia demonstrated to society a completely new type of Russian person, capable of challenging the arbitrariness of despotic power, and became for several generations a criterion of noble honor, a moral basis for future social reforms.
It was the noble class that played the main role in the development of Russian culture in the first half of the 19th century, since mainly the nobles had favorable material and social conditions for education and artistic creativity during this period. Nevertheless, advanced Russian culture, represented mainly by nobles, objectively opposed class inequality, serfdom, autocratic and bureaucratic lawlessness. It is paradoxical that the giant leap in cultural development made by Russia in the 19th century occurred against the backdrop of “belated” and largely inconsistent economic and political modernization.
The rise of Russian culture in the 19th century was caused by a number of circumstances:
○ Russian society was experiencing a period of radical transformation, the formation of national identity and gradual democratization of public life. These changes manifested themselves most intensively in the second half of the 19th century, during the post-reform period, which set its own challenges for the country.
○ The specialization of various spheres of cultural activity is increasing, especially in science, where new areas of research are emerging, and at the same time, close mutual influence of philosophy is being established, and at the same time, close mutual influence of philosophy and literature, literature and other types of art is being established.
○ Modernization of the economy requires an increasing number of literate, qualified specialists, a network of specialized educational institutions is developing, and the base of bourgeois democratic culture is expanding.
○ But the burden of traditional relations remains strong and bourgeois society in Russia in the 19th century has not yet taken shape. The great Russian culture fully reflected all the contradictions and painful conflicts of its time, most clearly manifested in the creative activity of the Russian intelligentsia.
The culture of Russia in the 19th century is unique. This is a time of unprecedented flowering of all types of art. This is a time of new, even more progressive discoveries. This is the time when creativity becomes closer to the people. This is the time the beginning of which is considered the “golden age” of Russian culture.
Literature and journalism.
Everyone who studied at school is familiar with such names as A. S. Pushkin, L. N. Tolstoy, M. Yu. Lermontov, I. S. Turgenev, N. V. Gogol, F. M. Dostoevsky and many others . They all wrote in the 19th century.
A significant role at this time also belonged to newspapers and magazines, of which there were a lot. Some of them were mouthpieces of various political forces (“Sovremennik”, “Vestnik Evropy”, “Moskovskie Vedomosti”, “Otechestvennye zapiski”, etc.)
Architecture.
In the first half of the century, late classicism or Empire style dominated. The largest works in this style were created by the architects A. Voronikhin (Kazan Cathedral), A. Zakharov (Admiralty), C. Rossi (Alexandrinsky Theater), O. Beauvais (Bolshoi Theater in Moscow) and O. Montferrand (St. Isaac's Cathedral).
The second half was remembered for the spread of eclecticism (a mixture of styles) and pseudo-Russian style, represented by such monuments as the Moscow Historical Museum (V. Sherwood), the Church of the Savior on Spilled Blood (A. Parland).
Sculpture.
At the beginning of the century, work began on the monument to Minin and Pozharsky, and in 1818 I. Martos completed his work. Famous sculptors of that time were also: P. Klodt, M. Antokolsky, P. Trubetskoy and S. Konenkov. In addition, in 1880 in Moscow, a monument to A. S. Pushkin was created by A. Opekushin.
Painting.
In painting at the beginning of the century, style changed: from classicism to romanticism. Portraits of O. Kiprensky and V. Tropinin, some works of K. Bryullov are classified precisely as romantic works. A huge amount of work was also put into A. Ivanov’s painting “The Appearance of Christ to the People.” In the work of A. Venetsianov, the everyday genre begins, which finds its continuation in the paintings of P. Fedorov, but more in a satirical form.
In the next half of the century, the main thing becomes an accusatory image of reality. This theme is shown in the paintings of V. Perov. He was also a wonderful portrait painter. At the same time, a number of artists separated from academic art, and in 1870 the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions appeared. It included I. Repin, V. Vasnetsov, I. Aivazovsky, A. Savrasov, I. Levitan, V. Surikov, I. Shishkin, and other brilliant creators. I. Kramskoy was considered the head of the association.
Theater and music.
The main drama theaters of that time were considered the Alexandrinsky in St. Petersburg and the Maly in Moscow. The great actors who shone on their stages were P. Mochalov, M. Shchepkin, M. Ermolova, P. Strepetova. In 1898, the Moscow Art Theater began its work (creators K. Stanislavsky and V. Nemirovich-Danchenko).
In music, M. Glinka left behind a brilliant legacy - the operas “Ivan Susanin” and “Ruslan and Lyudmila”. The traditions laid down by him were further developed by composers who in 1862 organized the “Mighty Handful”. These were M. Balakirev, M. Mussorgsky, A. Borodin, Ts. Cui and N. Rimsky-Korsakov. In the second half of the 19th century. created by P. Tchaikovsky. Surely many people know this composer, at least for his ballet “Swan Lake”.
Education and science.
According to the reform of 1803 -1804. On the territory of the empire, 6 educational districts were allocated, the centers of which were universities, and some of them had just opened their doors. During the reign of Nicholas II, a strictly conservative policy was pursued in education. Thus, in 1835, universities were deprived of their autonomy. With Alexander II everything changed in the opposite direction. It was announced that education would be classless, and zemstvo schools appeared along with public, private and church schools. Literacy has increased dramatically. The number of educational institutions increased. With the accession of Alexander III to the throne, the conservative course again prevailed.
Science achieved enormous growth in the 19th century. N. Lobachevsky, N. Zinin, B. Jacobi, N. Pirogov, F. Bellingshausen and M. Lazarev, N. Karamzin are prominent scientists and researchers of the first half of the century (not all). Then D. Mendeleev, I. Sechenov, I. Mechnikov, K. Timiryazev, P. Yablochkov, N. Zhukovsky, V. Klyuchevsky and others achieved great success. Surnames that everyone can hear in school.
As you can see, the legacy is extremely huge. As you can see, there is an inextricable connection between art and the political life of the state, which contributed to the unprecedented rise of Russian culture in the 19th century, which finally took a worthy high place in the world.
Features of the development of culture in the 19th century. The 19th century was called the “golden age” of Russian culture, which occupied an outstanding position in global culture. The cultural development of Russia in the first half of the century was determined by the country's active participation in European politics, which brought Russia and Europe closer together; the emergence of oppositional and revolutionary currents of social thought; weakening of such a centuries-old foundation of Russian life as serfdom. Russian culture of the second half of the 19th century was greatly influenced by the reforms of the 60s and 70s. With the fall of serfdom, the spiritual emancipation of the people took place, and the circle of people who worked creatively—bearers of culture—expanded. The common people with their traditions, morals, values and demands become the central theme in culture and art. Scientific and technological progress, which served as both a factor and an indicator of the level of cultural development, was also of no small importance.
Education and enlightenment. At the beginning of the 19th century. education was recognized as the most important direction of state policy. The Ministry of Public Education, created in 1802, becomes the head of the educational system. State institutions created under Alexander I need educated personnel, for the training of which a number of new universities were established (Vilna, Dorpat, Kharkov, Kazan, St. Petersburg), exemplary secondary educational institutions - lyceums (the most famous is Tsarskoye Selo) and gymnasiums, where only nobles could study. In the second half, greater attention begins to be paid to public education. The number of primary schools grew from 1856 to 1896 from 8 to 79 thousand, in which up to 4 million people studied. And yet, most of the common people remained illiterate. State policy in relation to education experienced constant fluctuations, since it was among educated people that freethinking and the desire for reform spread. During periods of reaction and tightening of domestic policy (the era of Nicholas I - 30s - early 50s; Alexander III - 80s - 90s), state control over education increased, access to educational institutions was difficult, and their internal autonomy was limited. .Periodicals. The 19th century was a time of rapid development of Russian socio-political periodicals. On the pages of newspapers and magazines there was debate between supporters of various directions of social thought, the most important events and phenomena in the life of the state and society were assessed, works and essays of the greatest domestic thinkers, writers, poets, and critics were published. Entire generations were brought up on publications such as “Bulletin of Europe” by N.M. Karamzin; "Contemporary" A.S. Pushkin and H.A. Nekrasova, a. then N.G. Chernyshevsky and N.A. Dobrolyubova; “Domestic Notes” by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin and N.A. Nekrasova and others. Periodicals experienced particularly rapid growth during the 40 post-reform years, when the number of publications increased from 104 to 800. In the 90s. Russia comes in third place (after Germany and France) in the number of titles of published literature. Periodicals and literature contributed to the education of society, the growth of political culture and legal consciousness of the country's residents.
The science. Development of science in the first half of the 19th century. had its own characteristics, consisting in the intensive accumulation of factual material, new theoretical developments and in the intense struggle of progressive scientists with representatives of idealistic theories. Scientific discoveries were greatly influenced by advanced philosophical thought, which considered natural sciences to be the foundation of a materialistic worldview. A new phenomenon in science is its practical orientation. The discoveries and inventions of many Russian scientists are of global significance: a real revolution in geometry was made by the research of N.I. Lobachevsky, who created the so-called system. "non-Euclidean" geometry; physicist B.S. Jacobi designed an electric motor; The greatest scientific discovery was the periodic law of chemical elements, formulated by D.I. Mendeleev; deep research in the field of psychology and higher nervous activity of humans and animals was carried out by I.I. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov, etc. A huge step forward in the 19th century was made in the knowledge and understanding of the Russian past, which was associated with the general rise of Russian national self-awareness in this era. Such major historians of the 19th century as N.M. Karamzin, S.M. Soloviev, V.O. Klyuchevsky created fundamental works on Russian history, which highlight the problems of the formation of statehood in Russia, the main trends in the life of the state and society, the role of the people in the life of the country, etc.
Literature. The 19th century became the “golden age” of Russian classical literature. At the beginning of the century, the main trend in literature was the replacement of classicism and sentimentalism with a new movement - romanticism, glorifying the departure from everyday life, the desire for a sublime ideal, and its search in the past. This direction is manifested in the works of V.A. Zhukovsky, K.F. Ryleev, early works of A.S. Pushkin and M.KH Lermontov. In the second quarter of the 19th century. In Russian literature, realism is affirmed - the desire to depict life in its typical manifestations. The founders of realism in Russian literature were the brilliant poet, prose writer, playwright and publicist - A.S. Pushkin, who penned such masterpieces of Russian literature as “Eugene Onegin”, “Boris Godunov”, “The Captain’s Daughter”, “The Queen of Spades” and many others, and the talented writer and playwright N.V. Gogol, the creator of works that mercilessly exposed the serfdom and autocratic order of Russia in the 30s and 40s. - “The Inspector General” and “Dead Souls”. The largest writers of the first half of the 19th century. were A.S. Griboyedov, I.A. Krylov, M.Yu. Lermontov, I.A. Goncharov and others. The central themes of the works of the greatest writers of the mid-second half of the 19th century. - I.S. Turgeneva, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy - questions of human nature, the meaning of life, the essence of existence became. This psychologism was caused by the tension in society that was characteristic of the second half of the 19th century.
Painting. A change in styles and directions occurred at the beginning of the 19th century. and in painting. Classicism, in which religious and mythological themes predominated, was supplanted first by romanticism (manifested in the paintings of O.A. Kiprensky, V.A. Tropinin, K.P. Bryullov), and then by realism, which received special development in the second half of the century. The most significant phenomenon of this period in painting was the “Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions”, which included such masters as I. Kramskoy, N. Ge, V. Surikov, V. Perov, A. Savrasov, I. Shishkin and others. Later I. Repin, I. Levitan, V. Makovsky joined them. A storyline based on the Russian people, their life, way of life, traditions; history of Russia, problems of modern reality; the manner of depiction, the deep drama and psychologism of the paintings make the works of these masters masterpieces of world culture.
Architecture. In the architecture of the first half of the 19th century. Classicism reigned. In St. Petersburg, majestic official buildings and architectural ensembles are being erected, designed to symbolize the greatness and prosperity of the Russian Empire. During this period, the ensemble of Palace Square, St. Isaac's Cathedral, the buildings of the Senate and Synod, etc. were built. In the post-reform period, architecture was influenced by various factors. These are, firstly, the achievements of industrial progress, which led to the emergence of a new type of building; on the other hand, there is a desire for antique stylization, which resulted in the emergence of the so-called “neo-Russian” style. The buildings of the Historical Museum, Upper Trading Rows (GUM), Moscow City Duma, etc. were built in this style. At the end of the 19th century. Elements of the Art Nouveau style begin to penetrate into architecture.
Music. Russian musical culture developed most actively in the second half of the 19th century. A huge contribution to the development of this area was made by representatives of the so-called “Mighty Handful” - M. Balakirev, A. Borodin, M. Mussorgsky, N. Rimsky-Korsakov and Ts. Cui. The creators of the association are characterized by the creation of large musical forms imbued with a high patriotic spirit. The greatest composer of the era was P.I. Tchaikovsky, whose operas, ballets and symphonies are imbued with deep lyricism and humanity, are filled with sincere feelings. The greatest achievements of Russian culture of the 19th century were caused by the growth of national self-awareness of Russian society, education, scientific and technological progress, etc. More and more sections of society are becoming involved in the sphere of culture and art. The national element in Russian culture of this era becomes predominant, which leads to its uniqueness and global significance.
