The formation of classicism in Russian painting. Classicism in painting

"Class!" - we talk about what causes us admiration or corresponds to our positive assessment of an object or phenomenon.
Translated from Latin the word classicus and means "exemplary".

Classicismnamed the artistic style and aesthetic direction in European culture of the 17th-19th centuries.

What about as a sample? Classicism developed canons according to which any work of art should be built. Canon- this is a certain norm, a set of artistic techniques or rules that are mandatory in a certain era.
Classicism is a strict movement in art; it was only interested in the essential, eternal, typical; accidental signs or manifestations were not interesting to classicism.
In this sense, classicism performed the educational functions of art.

Buildings of the Senate and Synod in St. Petersburg. Architect K. Rossi
Is it good or bad when there are canons in art? When is it possible to do this and nothing else? Don't rush to a negative conclusion! The canons made it possible to streamline the work of a certain type of art, give direction, show examples and sweep away everything that is insignificant and not deep.
But canons cannot be an eternal, unchanging guide to creativity - at some point they become obsolete. This is what happened at the beginning of the 20th century. in the visual arts and in music: norms that had been rooted for several centuries had become obsolete and were torn apart.
However, we have already gotten ahead of ourselves. Let's return to classicism and take a closer look at the hierarchy of classicism genres. Let's just say that classicism as a specific movement was formed in France in the 17th century. The peculiarity of French classicism was that it affirmed the personality of man as the highest value of existence. In many ways, classicism relied on ancient art, seeing in it an ideal aesthetic model.

Hierarchy of classicism genres

Classicism established a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high and low. Each genre has certain characteristics, which should not be mixed.
Let's consider the hierarchy of genres using examples of various types of art.

Literature

Nicolas Boileau is considered the largest theoretician of classicism, but the founder is Francois Malherbe, who carried out a reform of the French language and verse and developed poetic canons. N. Boileau expressed his views on the theory of classicism in the poetic treatise “Poetic Art”.

Bust of Nicolas Boileau by F. Girardon. Paris, Louvre
In dramaturgy it was necessary to observe three unities: unity of time (the action must take place over one day), unity of place (in one place) and unity of action (the work must have one storyline). The leading representatives of classicism in drama were the French tragedians Corneille and Racine. The main idea of ​​their work was the conflict between public duty and personal passions.
The goal of classicism is to change the world for the better.

In Russia

In Russia, the emergence and development of classicism is associated primarily with the name of M.V. Lomonosov.

M. V. Lomonosov at the monument “1000th anniversary of Russia” in Veliky Novgorod. Sculptors M.O. Mikeshin, I.N. Schroeder, architect V.A. Hartmann
He carried out a reform of Russian verse and developed the theory of the “three calms”.

“Theory of three calms” M.V. Lomonosov

The doctrine of three styles, i.e. the classification of styles in rhetoric and poetics, distinguishing high, middle and low (simple) styles, has been known for a long time. It was used in ancient Roman, medieval and modern European literature.
But Lomonosov used the doctrine of three styles to build a stylistic system Russian language and Russian literature. Three “styles” according to Lomonosov:
1. Tall – solemn, majestic. Genres: ode, heroic poems, tragedies.
2. Intermediate – elegies, dramas, satires, eclogues, friendly essays.
3. Low - comedies, letters, songs, fables.
Classicism in Russia developed under the influence of the Enlightenment: ideas of equality and justice. Therefore, in Russian classicism a mandatory author's assessment of historical reality was usually assumed. We find this in the comedies of D.I. Fonvizin, satires by A.D. Kantemir, fables by A.P. Sumarokova, I.I. Khemnitser, ode M.V. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavina.
At the end of the 18th century. The tendency to see art as the main force for educating a person has intensified. In this regard, the literary movement sentimentalism emerged, in which feeling (and not reason) was declared to be the main thing in human nature. The French writer Jean-Jacques Rousseau called for being closer to nature and naturalness. This call was followed by the Russian writer N.M. Karamzin – let’s remember his famous “Poor Liza”!
But works in the direction of classicism were also created in the 19th century. For example, “Woe from Wit” by A.S. Griboedova. Although this comedy already contains elements of romanticism and realism.

Painting

Since the definition of “classicism” is translated as “exemplary,” then some kind of example is natural for it. And supporters of classicism saw it in ancient art. This was the highest example. There was also reliance on the traditions of the High Renaissance, which also saw its model in antiquity. The art of classicism reflected the ideas of a harmonious structure of society, but reflected conflicts between the individual and society, ideal and reality, feelings and reason, which indicate the complexity of the art of classicism.
The artistic forms of classicism are characterized by strict organization, balance, clarity and harmony of images. The plot should develop logically, the composition of the plot should be clear and balanced, the volume should be clear, the role of color should be subordinated with the help of chiaroscuro, and the use of local colors. This is what N. Poussin wrote, for example.

Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665)

N. Poussin “Self-Portrait” (1649)
French artist who stood at the origins of classicism painting. Almost all of his paintings were created on historical and mythological subjects. His compositions are always clear and rhythmic.

N. Poussin “Dance to the Music of Time” (circa 1638)
The painting depicts an allegorical round dance of Life. Circling in it (from left to right): Pleasure, Diligence, Wealth, Poverty. Next to the double-headed stone statue of the Roman god Janus sits a baby blowing soap bubbles - a symbol of fast-flowing human life. The young face of the two-faced Janus looks to the future, and the old face looks to the past. The winged gray-bearded old man, to whose music the round dance spins, is Father Time. At his feet sits a baby holding an hourglass, reminiscent of the rapid movement of time.
The chariot of the sun god Apollo rushes across the sky, accompanied by the goddesses of the seasons. Aurora, goddess of the dawn, flies ahead of the chariot, scattering flowers along her path.

V. Borovikovsky “Portrait of G.R. Derzhavin" (1795)

V. Borovikovsky “Portrait of G.R. Derzhavin", State Tretyakov Gallery
The artist captured in the portrait a man whom he knew well and whose opinion he valued. This is a traditional ceremonial portrait for classicism. Derzhavin is a senator, a member of the Russian Academy, a statesman, his uniform and awards speak about this.
But at the same time, he is also a renowned poet, passionate about creativity, educational ideals and social life. This is indicated by a desk littered with manuscripts; luxury ink set; shelves with books in the background.
The image of G. R. Derzhavin is recognizable. But his inner world is not shown. Rousseau's ideas, which were already actively discussed in society, have not yet appeared in the work of V. Borovikovsky, this will happen later.
In the 19th century Classical painting entered a period of crisis and became a force holding back the development of art. Artists, preserving the language of classicism, begin to turn to romantic subjects. Among Russian artists, first of all, this is Karl Bryullov. His work occurred at a time when works that were classical in form were filled with the spirit of romanticism; this combination was called academicism. In the middle of the 19th century. The younger generation, gravitating toward realism, began to rebel, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Wanderers.

Sculpture

The sculpture of the era of classicism also considered antiquity as a model. This was also facilitated by archaeological excavations of ancient cities, as a result of which many Hellenistic sculptures became known.
Classicism reached its highest embodiment in the works of Antonio Canova.

Antonio Canova (1757-1822)

A. Canova “Self-portrait” (1792)
Italian sculptor, representative of classicism in European sculpture. The largest collections of his works are in the Paris Louvre and the St. Petersburg Hermitage.

A. Canova “The Three Graces”. St. Petersburg, Hermitage
The sculptural group “The Three Graces” belongs to the late period of Antonio Canova’s work. The sculptor embodied his ideas about beauty in the images of the graces - ancient goddesses personifying feminine beauty and charm. The composition of this sculpture is unusual: the graces stand side by side, the two outermost ones face each other (and not the viewer) and the friend standing in the center. All three slender female figures merged in an embrace, they are united by an interlacing of arms and a scarf falling from the hand of one of the graces. Canova's composition is compact and balanced.
In Russia, the aesthetics of classicism include Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, Ivan Martos.
Fedot Ivanovich Shubin(1740-1805) worked mainly with marble, sometimes turning to bronze. Most of his sculptural portraits are executed in the form of busts: busts of Vice-Chancellor A. M. Golitsyn, Count P. A. Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky, Potemkin-Tavrichesky, M. V. Lomonosov, Paul I, P. V. Zavadovsky, a statue of Catherine II -legislators and others.

F. Shubin. Bust of Paul I
Shubin is also known as a decorator; he created 58 marble historical portraits for the Chesme Palace, 42 sculptures for the Marble Palace, etc. He was also a master bone carver of Kholmogory carved bones.
In the era of classicism, public monuments became widespread, in which military valor and the wisdom of statesmen were idealized. But in the ancient tradition it was customary to depict models naked, but moral norms modern to classicism did not allow this. That is why figures began to be depicted in the form of naked ancient gods: for example, Suvorov - in the form of Mars. Later they began to be depicted in antique togas.

Monument to Kutuzov in St. Petersburg in front of the Kazan Cathedral. Sculptor B.I. Orlovsky, architect K.A. Tone
Late, Empire classicism is represented by the Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen.

B. Thorvaldsen. Monument to Nicolaus Copernicus in Warsaw

Architecture

The architecture of classicism was also focused on the forms of ancient architecture as standards of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Order– a type of architectural composition that uses certain elements. Includes a system of proportions, prescribes the composition and shape of elements, as well as their relative position. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.

London mansion Osterley Park. Architect Robert Adam
In Russia, representatives of classicism in architecture were V.I. Bazhenov, Karl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov.

Carl Bartalomeo-Rossi(1775-1849) - Russian architect of Italian origin, author of many buildings and architectural ensembles in St. Petersburg and its environs.
The outstanding architectural and urban planning skills of Russia are embodied in the ensembles of the Mikhailovsky Palace with the adjacent garden and square (1819-1825), Palace Square with the grandiose arched building of the General Staff and the triumphal arch (1819-1829), Senate Square with the buildings of the Senate and Synod (1829 -1834), Alexandrinskaya Square with the buildings of the Alexandrinsky Theater (1827-1832), the new building of the Imperial Public Library and two homogeneous extended buildings of Teatralnaya Street (now Architect Rossi Street).

The General Staff Building on Palace Square

Music

The concept of classicism in music is associated with the works of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, who are called the Viennese classics. It was they who determined the direction of the further development of European music.

Thomas Hardy "Portrait of Joseph Haydn" (1792)

Barbara Kraft "Posthumous Portrait of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart" (1819)

Karl Stieler "Portrait of Ludwig van Beethoven" (1820)
The aesthetics of classicism, based on confidence in the rationality and harmony of the world order, embodied these same principles in music. What was required of her was: balance of parts of the work, careful finishing of details, development of the basic canons of musical form. During this period, the sonata form was finally formed, and the classical composition of the sonata and symphony parts was determined.
Of course, the path of music to classicism was not simple and unambiguous. There was the first stage of classicism - the Renaissance of the 17th century. Some musicologists even consider the Baroque period as a particular manifestation of classicism. Thus, the work of I.S. can also be classified as classicism. Bach, G. Handel, K. Gluck with his reform operas. But the highest achievements of classicism in music are still associated with the work of representatives of the Viennese classical school: J. Haydn, W. A. ​​Mozart and L. van Beethoven.

Note

It is necessary to distinguish between concepts "music of classicism" And "classical music". The concept of “classical music” is much broader. It includes not only the music of the classical era, but also the music of the past in general, which has stood the test of time and is recognized as exemplary.

Among artistic styles, classicism, which became widespread in the advanced countries of the world in the period from the 17th to the beginning of the 19th century, is of no small importance. He became the heir to the ideas of the Enlightenment and manifested himself in almost all types of European and Russian art. He often came into conflict with the Baroque, especially during its formation in France.

Each country has its own age of classicism. It first developed in France - back in the 17th century, and a little later - in England and Holland. In Germany and Russia, the direction was established closer to the middle of the 18th century, when the time of neoclassicism had already begun in other countries. But this is not so significant. Another thing is more important: this direction became the first serious system in the field of culture, which laid the foundations for its further development.

What is classicism as a movement?

The name comes from the Latin word classicus, which means “exemplary”. The main principle was manifested in the appeal to the traditions of antiquity. They were perceived as the norm to which one should strive. The authors of the works were attracted by such qualities as simplicity and clarity of form, conciseness, rigor and harmony in everything. This applied to any works created during the period of classicism: literary, musical, pictorial, architectural. Each creator sought to find his place for everything, clear and strictly defined.

Main features of classicism

All types of art were characterized by the following features that help to understand what classicism is:

• a rational approach to the image and the exclusion of everything related to sensuality;
• the main purpose of a person is to serve the state;
• strict canons in everything;
• an established hierarchy of genres, the mixing of which is unacceptable.

Concretization of artistic features

Analysis of individual types of art helps to understand how the style of “classicism” was embodied in each of them.

How classicism was realized in literature

In this type of art, classicism was defined as a special direction in which the desire to re-educate with words was clearly expressed. The authors of works of art believed in a happy future where justice, freedom of all citizens, and equality would prevail. It meant, first of all, liberation from all types of oppression, including religious and monarchical. Classicism in literature necessarily required compliance with three unities: action (no more than one storyline), time (all events fit within a day), place (there was no movement in space). More recognition in this style was given to J. Molière, Voltaire (France), L. Gibbon (England), M. Twain, D. Fonvizin, M. Lomonosov (Russia).

Development of classicism in Russia

The new artistic direction established itself in Russian art later than in other countries - closer to the middle of the 18th century - and occupied a leading position until the first third of the 19th century. Russian classicism, unlike Western European classicism, relied more on national traditions. This is where his originality manifested itself.

Initially it came to architecture, where it reached its greatest heights. This was due to the construction of a new capital and the growth of Russian cities. The achievement of the architects was the creation of majestic palaces, comfortable residential buildings, and country estates of the nobility. The creation of architectural ensembles in the city center, which fully make it clear what classicism is, deserves special attention. These are, for example, the buildings of Tsarskoye Selo (A. Rinaldi), the Alexander Nevsky Lavra (I. Starov), the Spit of Vasilievsky Island (J. de Thomon) in St. Petersburg and many others.

The pinnacle of the architects’ work can be called the construction of the Marble Palace according to the design of A. Rinaldi, in the decoration of which natural stone was used for the first time.

No less famous is Petrodvorets (A. Schlüter, V. Rastrelli), which is an example of landscape art. Numerous buildings, fountains, sculptures, the layout itself - everything amazes with its proportionality and cleanliness of execution.

Literary direction in Russia

The development of classicism in Russian literature deserves special attention. Its founders were V. Trediakovsky, A. Kantemir, A. Sumarokov.

However, the greatest contribution to the development of the concept of what classicism is was made by the poet and scientist M. Lomonosov. He developed a system of three styles, which determined the requirements for writing works of art, and created a model of a solemn message - an ode, which was most popular in the literature of the second half of the 18th century.

The traditions of classicism were fully manifested in the plays of D. Fonvizin, especially in the comedy “The Minor.” In addition to the mandatory observance of the three unities and the cult of reason, the features of Russian comedy include the following points:

• a clear division of heroes into negative and positive and the presence of a reasoner expressing the position of the author;
• the presence of a love triangle;
• the punishment of vice and the triumph of good in the finale.

Works of the classicism era as a whole became the most important component in the development of world art.

Classicism focused on works of ancient art, but this did not mean simple copying. The direction also assumed the continuity of the aesthetic traditions of the Renaissance, whose artists very often turned to the theme of antiquity.

Classicism originates in the painting of artists of Western European countries at the end of the 16th century. The Carracci brothers made a great contribution to the systematization and consolidation of the achievements of the great masters of the Renaissance, especially Michelangelo and Raphael. In the 1580s. they opened the Academy of Arts in Bologna, education in which was based on a detailed study of the principles of work of great painters (from the basics of composition to drawing) and imitation of their skills.

At the beginning of the 17th century. Beginning painters from different countries come to Rome to study painting on the basis of familiarization with the masterpieces of antiquity and the Renaissance. The Frenchman Nicolas Poussin (1594-1664) achieved great success. Subsequently, he created many artistically worthy works on themes of antiquity and mythology. His works were distinguished by unsurpassed precision of composition and thoughtfulness of color schemes (“Midas and Bacchus”, 1625; “The Triumph of Neptune”, 1634).

Another French artist Claude Lorrain (1600-1682) painted a series of landscapes of the outskirts of Rome. He became the first of the painters who became seriously interested in the issue of depicting morning and evening lighting, light saturation. Filigree work with light and with images of silhouettes, creating the effect of depth of space - all this creates the style of Lorrain’s works (“Landscape with Merchants”, 1628; “The Rape of Europa”, 1655, etc.).

Classicism reached its peak in the 17th century. together with the rise of the absolute monarchy in France and the pronounced rise of theatrical art. The direction is headed by the Academy of Arts, opened in 1648 in Paris, which created a set of unshakable rules and laws for painting.

Only the beautiful and sublime could become the subject of art; antiquity remained the aesthetic ideal (therefore, in the works of classicists one cannot find a person with a shapeless figure or flabby skin). The Academy also established principles for depicting “passions”; She also divided the genres of art into “high” (historical, religious, mythological) and “low” (portrait, landscape, still life, everyday genre), and the combination of genres in paintings was not allowed.

In the works of classicism, the main importance was given to: the logical meaning of the plot, a clear and competent composition, and the correct transfer of volume. The main elements of constructing the form were line and light and shade; division in landscape plans was carried out using color (the foreground was made brown, the middle ground was made greenish, the background was made blue).

Prominent representatives of European “late classicism” or “neoclassicism” were the French artists Jacques-Louis David (1748-1825) and Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres (1780-1867). Extremely dry and full of drama, the pictorial language of Jacques-Louis David equally successfully glorified the ideals of the Great French Revolution (“The Death of Marat”, 1793) and glorified the First Empire in France (“Dedication of Emperor Napoleon I”, 1805-07).

The paintings of Ingres, who often turned to romantic subjects, delight with his sense of style, elegance of lines, magnificent play of color and light (“Great Odalisque,” ​​1814; “Seated Bather,” 1808).

Gradually, the painting of European neoclassicism, despite the activities of individual major painters (Jacques-Louis David and Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres), degenerated into official apologetic or sentimental salon art.

Russian classicism appeared in the process of Europeanization of Russia under Catherine II and was widespread at the end of the 18th and 1st half of the 19th centuries. On the canvases of artists, the ideas of citizenship, lofty moral ideals, patriotism, and the value of the human person become dominant. Ancient culture, just like in European classicism, is accepted as an absolute classic and an invaluable historical heritage. Art is seen as a means that should tame raw passions and engage in moral education through the romantic affirmation of beauty.

Representatives of Russian classicism include, first of all, portrait painters D. G. Levitsky (1735-1822), F. Rokotov (1736-1808), V. A. Tropinin (1776-1857), O. Kiprensky (1782 -1836), V. Borovikovsky (1757-1825). The painters created a whole gallery of wonderful portraits of their contemporaries - works that glorify the inner beauty and nobility of human aspirations.

Portraits brought to us images of famous people and showed the maturity and artistic skill of the artists. Among the most famous works are “Coronation Portrait of Catherine II” by F. Rokotov, 1763; “Portrait of E. I. Nelidova” by D. Levitsky, 1773; “Portrait of M. I. Lopukhina” by V. Borovikovsky, 1797; “Portrait of Pushkin” by V. Tropinin, 1827

The famous Russian classicist is K. A. Bryullov (1799-1852). His paintings combined academic classicism with romanticism. The artist’s most famous painting, “The Last Day of Pompeii” (1830-33), is distinguished by its dramatic plot, theatrical showiness of plastic, complexity of lighting and virtuoso execution.

These and other artists - representatives of classicism - in their works largely anticipated the achievements of Russian realism of subsequent decades.

The definition of classicism (from the Latin classicus - exemplary) is an artistic style and movement in the art of Europe in the 17th - 19th centuries. It is based on the ideas of rationalism, the main goal of which is to educate the public on the basis of a certain ideal, model, which is similar to modernism. The culture of the ancient world served as such an example. The rules and canons of classicism were of paramount importance; they had to be observed by all artists working within this direction and style.

Definition of a classic

Classicism, as a style, replaced the lush and pompous exterior. By the end of the 17th century, European society was imbued with the ideas of enlightenment, which was reflected in the culture and art. The attention of architects and sculptors was attracted by the rigor, simplicity, clarity and conciseness of ancient culture, in particular ancient Greek. , architecture became the subject of imitation and borrowing.

As a movement, classicism embraced all types of art: painting, music, literature, architecture.

The history of the emergence of the classical style: from antiquity to the Renaissance

Classicism, the main goal of which is to educate the public on the basis of a certain ideal and compliance with all generally accepted canons, is completely opposite, which denied all the rules and was a rebellion against any artistic tradition in any direction.

Provincial classicism in Russia

This is a direction characteristic only of Russian architecture. Most of the historical buildings of St. Petersburg and Moscow, Yaroslavl, Pskov are made in provincial classicism. Its origins date back to the period of the Golden Age. Classic representatives of architectural structures made in the style of classicism: Kazan Cathedral, St. Nicholas Cossack Cathedral, etc.

Periods: early, middle, late (high)

In its development, classicism went through 3 periods, which can be listed as follows:

1. Early(1760s - early 1780s) - the flourishing of the movement, the adoption of the concept of a new style, the determination of the reasons and why the style will belong specifically to classicism;
2. Strict or medium(1780s – 1790s) – rooting of the style, description in many literary and visual works, construction of buildings;
3. Late or high, called (the first 30 years of the 19th century).

The photo shows the Arc de Triomphe in Paris - a striking example of classicism.

Characteristics and features of the world style

Characteristics of classics in all areas of creativity:

• clear geometric shapes,
• high quality materials,
• noble finishing and restraint.

Majesty and harmony, grace and luxury - these are the main distinctive features of classicism. These features were later reflected in interiors in the style.

Characteristic features of classicism in a modern interior

Significant style features:

• smooth walls with soft floral motifs;
• elements of antiquity: palaces and columns;
• stucco;
• exquisite parquet;
• fabric wallpaper on the walls;
• elegant, graceful furniture.

The peculiarities of the Russian classic style were calm rectangular shapes, restrained and at the same time varied decorative design, precise proportions, dignified appearance, harmony and taste.

Exterior of the classic direction: buildings

The external signs of classicism in architecture are clearly expressed; they can be identified at the first glance at the building.

1. Designs: stable, massive, rectangular and arched. The compositions are clearly planned, strict symmetry is observed.
2. Shapes: clear geometry, volume and monumentality; statues, columns, niches, rotunda, hemispheres, pediments, friezes.
3. Lines: strict; regular planning system; bas-reliefs, medallions, smooth pattern.
4. Materials: stone, brick, wood, stucco.
5. Roof: complex, intricate shape.
6. Predominant colors: rich white, green, pink, purple, sky blue, gold.
7. Characteristic elements: restrained decor, columns, pilasters, antique ornaments, marble staircase, balconies.
8. Windows: semicircular, rectangular, elongated upward, modestly decorated.
9. Doors: rectangular, paneled, often decorated with statues (lion, sphinx).
10. Decor: carving, gilding, bronze, mother-of-pearl, inlay.

Interior: signs of classicism and architectural genres

The interior of the premises of the classicism era contains nobility, restraint and harmony. However, all interior items do not look like museum exhibits, but only emphasize the subtle artistic taste and respectability of the owner.

The room has the correct shape, filled with an atmosphere of nobility, comfort, warmth, and exquisite luxury; not overloaded with details.

The central place in interior decoration is occupied by natural materials, mainly valuable wood, marble, stone, and silk.

• Ceilings: light, tall, often multi-level, with stucco and ornaments.
• Walls: decorated with fabrics, light but not bright, pilasters and columns, stucco or painting are possible.
• Flooring: parquet made of valuable wood species (merbau, camsha, teak, jatoba) or marble.
• Lighting: chandeliers made of crystal, stone or expensive glass; gilded chandeliers with candle-shaped shades.
• Required interior attributes: mirrors, fireplaces, cozy low armchairs, low tea tables, light handmade carpets, paintings with antique scenes, books, massive antique-style floor vases, tripod flower stands.

Antique motifs are often used in the decor of the room: meanders, festoons, laurel garlands, strings of pearls. Expensive textiles are used for decoration, including tapestries, taffeta and velvet.

Furniture

Furniture from the Classical era is distinguished by its quality and respectability, made of expensive materials, mainly valuable wood. It is noteworthy that the texture of wood acts not only as a material, but also as a decorative element. Furniture items are made by hand, decorated with carvings, gilding, inlay, precious stones and metals. But the form is simple: strict lines, clear proportions. The dining room tables and chairs are made with elegant carved legs. The dishes are porcelain, thin, almost transparent, with a pattern and gilding. A secretary with a cubic body on high legs was considered one of the most important attributes of furniture.

Architecture: theaters, churches and other buildings

Classicism turned to the fundamentals of ancient architecture, using not only elements and motifs, but also patterns in design. The basis of the architectural language is the order with its strict symmetry, proportionality of the created composition, regularity of layout and clarity of volumetric form.

Classicism is the complete opposite with its pretentiousness and decorative excesses.

Unfortified palaces and garden and park ensembles were created, which became the basis of the French garden with its straightened alleys, trimmed lawns in the shape of cones and balls. Typical details of classicism are accented stairs, classic antique decor, a dome in public buildings.

Late classicism (Empire style) acquires military symbols (“Arc de Triomphe” in France). In Russia, St. Petersburg can be called the canon of the architectural style of classicism; in Europe, these are Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh.

Sculpture: ideas and development

In the era of classicism, public monuments embodying military valor and the wisdom of statesmen became widespread. Moreover, the main solution for the sculptors was the model of depicting famous figures in the image of ancient gods (for example, Suvorov - in the form of Mars). It became popular among private individuals to commission tombstones from sculptors to perpetuate their names. In general, the sculptures of the era are characterized by calmness, restraint of gestures, dispassionate expressions, and purity of lines.

Fashion: clothes from Europe and Russia

Interest in antiquity in clothing began to manifest itself in the 80s of the 18th century. This was especially evident in the women's costume. A new ideal of beauty has emerged in Europe, one that celebrates natural forms and beautiful feminine lines.. The finest smooth fabrics in light colors, especially white, have come into fashion.

Women's dresses lost frames, padding and petticoats and took the form of long, pleated tunics, cut at the sides and tied with a belt under the bust. They were worn over flesh-colored tights. Sandals with ribbons served as footwear. Hairstyles have been copied since antiquity. Powder, which was used to cover the face, hands, and décolleté, is still in fashion.

Accessories included either muslin turbans decorated with feathers, Turkish scarves or Kashmiri shawls.

From the beginning of the 19th century, formal dresses began to be sewn with trains and a deep neckline. And in everyday dresses, the neckline was covered with a lace scarf. The hairstyle gradually changes, and the powder goes out of use. Fashion includes short-cropped hair, curled into curls, tied with a gold ribbon or decorated with a crown of flowers.

Men's fashion developed under the influence of the British. English cloth tailcoats, redingotes (outerwear resembling a frock coat), jabots and cuffs are becoming popular. It was in the era of classicism that men's ties came into fashion.

Art

Painting and fine arts

In painting, classicism is also characterized by restraint and severity. The main elements of form are line and light and shade. Local color emphasizes the plasticity of objects and figures and divides the spatial plan of the picture. The greatest master of the 17th century. – Lorraine Claude, famous for his “ideal landscapes.” Civil pathos and lyricism were combined in the “decorative landscapes” of the French painter Jacques Louis David (18th century). Among Russian artists one can single out Karl Bryullov, who combined classicism with (19th century).

Classicism in music is associated with such great names as Mozart, Beethoven and Haydn, who determined the further development of musical art.

Literature: heroes and personality in works

The literature of the classical era promoted reason conquering feelings. The conflict between duty and passions is the basis of the plot of a literary work, where a person is constantly in tension and must choose what decision to make. Language reform was carried out in many countries and the foundations of poetic art were laid. Leading representatives of the direction are Francois Malherbe, Corneille, Racine. The main compositional principle of the work is the unity of time, place and action.

In Russia, classicism develops under the auspices of the Enlightenment, the main ideas of which were equality and justice. The most brilliant author of literature of the era of Russian classicism is M. Lomonosov, who laid the foundations of versification. The main genre was comedy and satire. Fonvizin and Kantemir worked in this direction.

The “Golden Age” is considered the era of classicism for theatrical art, which developed very dynamically and was improved. The theater was quite professional, and the actor on stage did not just act, but lived, experienced, while remaining himself. The theatrical style was proclaimed the art of recitation.

An example of a painting in a classic style:

The main classicists: artists, architects

Among the world's brightest cultural figures - classicists of fine art and architecture, one can also highlight such names as:

• Jacques-Ange Gabriel, Piranesi, Jacques-Germain Soufflot, Bazhenov, Carl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin, (architecture);
• Antonio Canova, Thorvaldsen, Fedot Shubin, Boris Orlovsky, Mikhail Kozlovsky (sculpture);
• Nicolas Poussin, Lebrun, Ingres (painting);
• Voltaire, Samuel Johnson, Derzhavin, Sumarokov, Khemnitser (literature).

Video: traditions and culture, distinctive features, music

Conclusion

Ideas from the era of classicism are successfully used in modern design. It retains nobility and elegance, beauty and grandeur. The main features are wall paintings, drapery, stucco, furniture made of natural wood. There are few decorations, but they are all luxurious: mirrors, paintings, massive chandeliers.

In the second half of the 18th century, the style of classicism was formed in Russian art. The originality of Russian classicism lay in the fact that its masters turned not only to antiquity, but also to their native history, that they strived for simplicity, naturalness and humanity. In classicism, the ideas of an absolutist state, which replaced feudal fragmentation, found their artistic embodiment. Absolutism expressed the idea of ​​firm power, and the eternity of the absolutist system was promoted.

Among the largest Russian portrait painters of the second half of the 18th century, F. Rokotov was the most original. Already as a young man, he became widely known as a skillful and original painter. His creative legacy is significant. Rokotov was already a student at the Academy of Arts in 1760, and three years later became its teacher and then an academician. The service distracted the artist from creativity, and official orders became a burden. In 1765, Rokotov left the Academy of Arts and moved permanently to Moscow. There a new, creative, very fruitful period of his life began. He became the artist of the enlightened nobility in independent and sometimes freethinking Moscow. His works reflected the desire of the best, enlightened part of the Russian nobility to follow high moral standards, characteristic of that time. The artist loved to depict a person without a formal entourage, without posing. People in Rokotov's later portraits become more attractive in their intelligence and spirituality. Rokotov usually uses soft lighting and focuses all the attention on faces. People in his portraits almost always smile a little, often looking intently, sometimes mysteriously at the viewer. They are united by something in common, some kind of deep humanity and warmth.

At the beginning of the 19th century, high classicism appeared. Characteristic of the painters of this time was a romantic affirmation of the beauty of the unique, individual, unusual, but the highest achievement of this era of fine art in Russia can be considered not historical painting, but a portrait (I. Argunov, A. Antropov, V. Borovikovsky, O. Kiprensky).

O.A. Kiprensky (1782-1836) discovered not only new human qualities, but also new possibilities for painting. Each of his portraits has its own special pictorial structure. Some are built on a sharp contrast of light and shadow. In others, the main pictorial means is a subtle gradation of colors that are close to each other. For paintings by K.P. Bryullov (1799-1852) is characterized by a fusion of academic classicism with romanticism, novelty of plots, theatrical effectiveness of plastic and lighting, complexity of composition, brilliant virtuosity of the brush. The painting “The Last Day of Pompeii” (1830-1833) was widely known. The sublime beauty of man and the inevitability of his death are reflected in the picture in a tragic contradiction. A romantic character is also inherent in most of Bryullov’s portraits.

8. “Golden Age” of Russian culture (literature)

The 19th century is called the “Golden Age” of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. We should not forget that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin.

But the 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the emergence of romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. The poetic works of poets E.A. come to the fore. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykova. The creativity of F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed. However, the central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.

A.S. Pushkin began his ascent to the literary Olympus with the poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila” in 1920. And his novel in verse “Eugene Onegin” was called an encyclopedia of Russian life. Romantic poems by A.S. Pushkin’s “The Bronze Horseman” (1833), “The Bakhchisarai Fountain”, and “The Gypsies” ushered in the era of Russian romanticism. Many poets and writers considered A.S. Pushkin their teacher and continued the traditions of creating literary works laid down by him. One of these poets was M.Yu. Lermontov. His romantic poem “Mtsyri”, the poetic story “Demon”, and many romantic poems are known. It is interesting that Russian poetry of the 19th century was closely connected with the socio-political life of the country. Poets tried to comprehend the idea of ​​their special purpose. The poet in Russia was considered a conductor of divine truth, a prophet. The poets called on the authorities to listen to their words. Vivid examples of understanding the role of the poet and influence on the political life of the country are the poems of A.S. Pushkin “Prophet”, ode “Liberty”, “Poet and the Crowd”, poem by M.Yu. Lermontov “On the Death of a Poet” and many others.

Along with poetry, prose began to develop. Prose writers at the beginning of the century were influenced by the English historical novels of W. Scott, the translations of which were extremely popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with the prose works of A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Pushkin, under the influence of English historical novels, creates the story “The Captain's Daughter”, where the action takes place against the backdrop of grandiose historical events: during the Pugachev rebellion. A.S. Pushkin did a colossal amount of work exploring this historical period. This work was largely political in nature and was aimed at those in power.

Since the middle of the 19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which was created against the backdrop of the tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis of the serfdom system is brewing, and contradictions between the authorities and the common people are strong. There is an urgent need to create realistic literature that is acutely responsive to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V.G. Belinsky denotes a new realistic direction in literature. His position is developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westerners and Slavophiles about the paths of historical development of Russia.

Writers turn to socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. His works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. Socio-political and philosophical issues predominate. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.

The end of the 19th century was marked by the emergence of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realistic tradition began to fade away. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature, the distinctive features of which were mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence developed into symbolism. This opens a new page in the history of Russian literature.

9.Golden Age" of Russian culture (painting, music)

Russian painting. In 1830, the Russian artist Karl Pavlovich Bryullov visited the excavations of the ancient city of Pompeii. He walked along the ancient pavements, admired the frescoes, and in his imagination that tragic night of August 79 AD arose. e., when the city was covered with hot ash and pumice of the awakened Vesuvius. Three years later, the painting “The Last Day of Pompeii” made a triumphant journey from Italy to Russia.

Bryullov was in Italy on a business trip to the Academy of Arts. This educational institution provided good training in painting and drawing techniques. However, the Academy clearly focused on the ancient heritage and heroic themes. Academic painting was characterized by a decorative landscape and theatricality of the overall composition. Scenes from modern life and ordinary Russian landscapes were considered unworthy of the artist’s brush. Classicism in painting was called academicism.

Two remarkable portrait painters of their time - Orest Adamovich Kiprensky (1782-1836) and Vasily Andreevich Tropinin (1776-1857) - left us lifetime portraits of Pushkin. In Kiprensky, Pushkin looks solemn and romantic, in an aura of poetic glory. “You flatter me, Oreste,” Pushkin sighed, looking at the finished canvas. In Tropinin’s portrait, the poet is charming in a homely way. Some special old-Moscow warmth and comfort emanates from Tropinin’s works.

The process of establishing Russian musical culture went in different directions. Works of composers of the early 19th century. was associated with the theater. The early theatrical genres included the fairy-tale operas “The Invisible Prince” and “Ilya the Bogatyr”, the patriotic opera “Ivan Susanin” by K. A. Kavos, the music of O. A. Kozlovsky for the tragedies of V. A. Ozerov, the oratorio by S. A. Degtyarev “Minin and Pozharsky” (“Liberation of Moscow”).

An important role in the development of Russian romance was played by composers A. A. Alyabyev, A. E. Varlamov, A. L. Gurilev, A. N. Verstovsky. The author of the famous “Nightingale” with lyrics by A. A. Delvig Alyabyev introduced a romantic spirit into Russian vocal music. He wrote romances based on the words of Pushkin (“I loved you,” “Awakening,” “Winter Road,” etc.). Varlamov created about 200 romances and songs based on poems by Russian poets M. Yu. Lermontov, A. N. Pleshcheev, A. A. Fet, A. V. Koltsov and others. His romances reflected the figurative structure of Russian folk song, its intonation and fret features. Gurilev’s lyrical talent is revealed in his best romances “You Can’t Understand My Sadness”, “Inner Music”. The traditions of fairy tales and epics are inherent in Verstovsky’s romantic opera “Askold’s Grave.”

Works of A.S. Pushkin

Pushkin's work was a rapid movement, closely connected with his fate, with the socio-ideological and literary life of Russia in the first third of the 19th century. Pushkin does not have two biographies - an ordinary, everyday biography and a literary biography. He is an example of the unity of man and poet. Life and poetry merged into one whole for him. For Pushkin, the facts of life became the facts of creativity. In turn, poetry determined his fate.

A real triumph of the St. Petersburg period was the work “Ruslan and Lyudmila,” which was published in 1820. Pushkin took plot lines, characters and some scenes from other historical and literary sources, making his artistic adaptation. Traveling to the Caucasus and Crimea also brought creative results. In 1821, “The Robber Brothers” and “Prisoner of the Caucasus” appeared. Crimean impressions were conveyed in the poem “The Bakhchisarai Fountain,” dated 1822. And an overnight stay with gypsies on the way to Odessa brought Pushkin inspiration to create the poem “The Gypsies” in 1824.

As a result of Pushkin’s creative and literary experiments, stories of romantic content were written, the best of which are considered to be “The Young Lady-Peasant Woman”, the poetic novel “Eugene Onegin” and “The Tale of Tsar Saltan”. While in Moscow, in 1832, Pushkin wrote the famous novel “Dubrovsky,” which tells about the tyranny of the landowners, and refers to the legends in “Mermaids” and the realities of “The Bronze Horseman.” Fairy tales remain unchanged in his work: about the dead princess, about the golden cockerel, etc. In 1835 the famous "Egyptian Nights" were published, and in 1836 - "The Captain's Daughter", which brought incredible success to Pushkin.

Analysis of the story “The Captain's Daughter” by A. S. Pushkin

The genre of the work is a historical story written in the form of memoirs.

The basis of the historical events described in the story is the uprising led by Emelyan Pugachev of 1773-1775.

Composition. The plot tells about the childhood and adolescence of Petrusha Grinev, about life in the parental family. The climax of the story is the capture of the Belogorsk fortress by the rebels and the execution of Captain Mironov and his wife.

The second climax is the appearance of Grinev in the captured fortress to save Masha. The denouement is the news of the empress's pardon of Grinev. The story ends with a short epilogue, although it is not indicated that this is an epilogue.

The story paints a vivid picture of a spontaneous popular uprising. Pushkin mentions some of the reasons for the uprising and depicts the diverse national and social composition of participants in the movement. The people in the story are not a faceless mass led by their leader, they are diverse personalities united by a specific goal: the mutilated Bashkir, Khlopusha, Cossacks, peasants and many others who stood under the banner of Pugachev.

Basic images. Drawing the image of old man Grinev, Pushkin raises the problem of upbringing and education of youth. The author does not idealize the Grinev family: the head of the family is quick to make decisions and to take reprisals, and is unsteady in his search for the truth. His son Peter evokes sympathy; in difficult circumstances, while still very young, he honorably remained faithful to his word. Sincere, decent, faithful to the oath, not afraid in the face of danger and a military court, he evokes a feeling of respect.