Analytical languages- languages in which grammatical meanings are mainly expressed outside the word, in the sentence: English, French, and all isolating languages, for example, Vietnamese. In these languages, a word is a transmitter of lexical meaning, and grammatical meanings are transmitted separately: by the order of words in a sentence, function words, intonation, etc.
Examples
Phrase in Russian - "father loves son". If you change the word order - “father loves son”, then the meaning of the phrase will not change, the word “son” and the word “father” change the case ending. Phrase in English - "the father loves the son". When changing the word order to "the son loves the father" the meaning of the phrase changes exactly the opposite - "son loves father", since there are no case endings, and the word son sounds and is written the same even if it corresponds to the nominative case of the Russian language and indirect cases. Therefore, the meaning of a sentence depends on the order of words in the sentence. The same phenomenon is observed if we consider the French phrase "le père aime le fils" with the same meaning.
see also
Links
- // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: In 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional ones). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.
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See what “Analytical language” is in other dictionaries: ANALYTICAL LANGUAGE - (English analytical language). A language that tends to express grammatical relationships using auxiliaries and word order in sentences (for example, in English), rather than with case endings, as in synthetic languages (for example, ...
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Books
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What does "synthetic languages" mean?
Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998
synthetic languages
a class of languages in which grammatical meanings are expressed within words using affixes or internal inflection, e.g. Russian, German, Lithuanian and other Indo-European languages.
Synthetic languages
a typological class of languages in which synthetic forms of expressing grammatical meanings predominate. S. I. are contrasted with analytical languages, in which grammatical meanings are expressed using function words, and polysynthetic languages, in which several nominal and verbal lexical meanings are combined within a completely formed complex (outwardly resembling a word). The basis for dividing languages into synthetic, analytical and polysynthetic is essentially syntactic, therefore this division intersects with the morphological classification of languages, but does not coincide with it. The division of languages into synthetic and analytical was proposed by A. Schlegel (only for inflectional languages), A. Schleicher extended it to agglutinative languages. Morphemes included in a word in S. Ya. can be combined according to the principle of agglutination, fusion, and undergo positional alternations (for example, Turkic synharmonism). Synthetic forms are found in a significant part of the world's languages. Since a language, in principle, is never typologically homogeneous, the term “S. I." applied in practice to languages with a fairly high degree of synthesis, for example, Turkic, Finno-Ugric, most Semitic-Hamitic, Indo-European (ancient), Mongolian, Tungus-Manchu, some African (Bantu), Caucasian, Paleo-Asian, American Indian languages.
Lit.: Kuznetsov P.S., Morphological classification of languages, M., 1954; Uspensky B. A., Structural typology of languages, M., 1965; Rozhdestvensky Yu. V., Typology of the word, M., 1969; Linguistic typology, in the book: General linguistics, vol. 2, M., 1972; Home K. M., Language typology 19th and 20th century views, Wash., 1966; Pettier B., La typologie, in the book: Le langage, Encyclopedie de la Pleiade, v. 25, P., 1968.
The analytical system involves a wider use of function words, phonetic means and word order to form word forms, phrases and sentences. The languages of the analytical system are English, French, Italian, Spanish, Persian, Bulgarian and some other Indo-European languages.
The synthetic system is characterized by the fact that, along with the use of function words, word order and intonation, a large role belongs to the forms of words formed with the help of affixes - inflections and formative suffixes and prefixes. Synthetic languages are Russian, Polish, Lithuanian and most other Indo-European languages; All ancient written Indo-European languages, such as Latin, Greek, and Gothic, were synthetic.
50. Typological K. I. (see also Morphological classification of languages) arose on the basis of morphological data, regardless of genetic or spatial proximity, relying solely on the properties of the linguistic structure. Typological K. I. strives to cover the material of all languages of the world, reflect their similarities and differences, and at the same time identify possible language types and specifics of each language or group of typologically similar languages. Modern typological K. i. relies on data not only from morphology, but also from phonology, syntax, and semantics. The basis for including language in the typological K. I. is the type of language, that is, the characteristics of the fundamental properties of its structure. However, a type is not absolutely implemented in a language; In reality, each language contains several types, that is, each language is polytypological. Therefore, it is appropriate to say to what extent one or another type is present in the structure of a given language; on this basis, attempts are being made to give a quantitative interpretation of the typological characteristics of the language. The main problem for typological K. i. is the creation of descriptions of languages, consistent in a single terminology and based on a single concept of linguistic structure and a system of consistent and sufficient criteria for typological description. The most accepted typological language is the following: isolating (amorphous) type - unchangeable words with grammatical significance of word order, weak opposition of significant and auxiliary roots (for example, ancient Chinese, Vietnamese, Yoruba); agglutinating (agglutinative) type - a developed system of unambiguous affixes, the absence of grammatical alternations in the root, the same type of inflection for all words belonging to the same part of speech, a weak connection (the presence of distinct boundaries) between morphs (for example, many Finno-Ugric languages, Turkic languages, Bantu languages); the inflectional type combines languages with internal inflection, that is, with grammatically significant alternation in the root (Semitic languages), and languages with external inflection, fusion, that is, with the simultaneous expression of several grammatical meanings with one affix (for example, with hands - instrumental case, plural), strong connection (absence of distinct boundaries) between morphs and diversity of declensions and conjugations (to some extent - Somali, Estonian, Nakh languages); Ancient and some modern Indo-European languages combine internal inflection and fusion. A number of typologists also identify incorporating (polysynthetic) languages, where there are “word-sentences”, complex complexes: the verb form includes (sometimes in truncated form) nominal stems corresponding to the object and circumstances, the subject, as well as some grammatical indicators (for example, some American Indian languages, some Paleo-Asian and Caucasian languages). This typological linguistic language, which is fundamentally morphological, cannot be considered final, mainly because of its inability to reflect all the specifics of a particular language, taking into account its structure. But it contains in implicit form the possibility of clarifying it by analyzing other spheres of language. For example, in isolating languages such as classical Chinese, Vietnamese, and Guinean, the monosyllabic nature of a word equal to a morpheme, the presence of polytony, and a number of other interrelated characteristics are observed.
51.Parts of speech - the main classes of words in a language, identified on the basis of the similarity of their syntactic, morphological and logical-semantic properties. Significant Ch. r. differ. (noun, verb, adjective, adverb) and auxiliary (conjunction, preposition, particle, article, etc.). To Ch. r. traditionally also include numerals, pronouns and interjections.
Words can be classified depending on the positions they occupy in a phrase. To one Ch. r. include words that can stand in the same syntactic positions in a sentence or perform the same syntactic functions. In this case, not only the set of syntactic functions is important, but also the degree of specificity of each of the functions for a given Ch. in Russian, both a noun and a verb can act both as a subject (“a person loves”, “smoking is harmful to health”), and as a predicate (“Ivanov is a teacher”, “the tree is burning”), but for a verb the function of the predicate is primary, and the function of the subject is secondary, for a noun the function of the subject is primary, and the predicate is secondary, for example, a verb can be a subject only with a nominal predicate, and a noun - with a predicate of any type. Each Ch. has its own set of grammatical categories, and this set covers the absolute majority of words of a given Ch. in the Russian language, a noun is characterized by number, case and gender (as a word-classifying category), an adjective - degrees of comparison, number, case and gender (as an inflectional category). In the Burmese language, for example, the adjective and verb are not opposed in this regard (words corresponding to both adjectives and verbs of other languages have a category of degree of comparison).
Ch.r. system modern school grammars goes back to the works of Alexandrian philologists (Dionysius of Thracia, Apollonius Discolus), who distinguished on mixed morphological, semantic and syntactic grounds the name, verb, participle, adverb, article, pronoun, preposition, conjunction, and the name combined nouns, adjectives and numerals (in contrast to Plato, who connected, based on logical-syntactic relations, an adjective with a verb). The system of Alexandrian philologists also influenced the Arabic grammatical tradition. With the syntactic approach of Ch. turn out to be inherent in all languages, at the same time, the difficulties that arise with the morphological approach are avoided (cf. the absence of morphological features in the classification of Russian unchangeable nouns like “coat”). Composition Ch. r. varies in different languages. The differences concern both the set of black reserves itself and the volume of individual black rubles. Thus, in Russian, French, and Latin languages there are nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs. The most constant in languages is the opposition between noun and verb, but the universality of this distinction remains unproven.
52.Syntax(from ancient Greek σύνταξις - “construction, order, composition”) - a branch of linguistics that studies the structure of sentences and phrases.
The syntax addresses the following main issues:
Connection of words in phrases and sentences;
Consideration of types of syntactic connections;
Determining types of phrases and sentences;
Determining the meaning of phrases and sentences;
Combining simple sentences into complex ones.
The syntax is static, the object of study of which are structures not related to the context and situation of speech: a sentence (as a predicative unit) and a phrase (a non-predicative unit) and, most importantly, a member.
Communicative syntax The object of study of which is such problems as the actual and syntagmatic division of a sentence, the functioning of phrases in a sentence, the communicative paradigm of sentences, the typology of utterances, etc.
Text syntax The objects of study are the structural diagrams of phrases, simple and complex sentences, complex syntactic wholes, and various kinds of statements associated with the speech situation, as well as the structure of the text that goes beyond the complex syntactic whole. The study of these phenomena is of great importance for linguistic-stylistic and psycholinguistic analysis of the text.
Syntax functional A type of syntax that uses the “from function to means” approach as a research method, that is, finding out by what grammatical means spatial, temporal, causal, target relationships, etc. are expressed (cf.: the traditional “from means to function” approach, that is, finding out what functions a certain grammatical unit performs).
53. Proposal - a minimal syntactic construction used in acts of speech communication, characterized by predicativity and implementing a certain structural scheme. Since any syntactic construction is usually a group of words, the information conveyed in the traditional definition is not lost in defining a sentence through a syntactic construction. At the same time, the definition of a sentence as a syntactic construction is more precise: a syntactic construction is a group of words, but not every group of words constitutes a syntactic construction. Having characterized the sentence as a syntactic construction, we named the property that unites the sentence with some other syntactic units, and showed the generic affiliation of the sentence.
A sentence is a minimal syntactic construction used in acts of speech communication, characterized by predicativity and implementing a certain structural scheme. a sentence (even a one-word one), in contrast to a word and phrase, denotes some actualized situation, i.e., a situation related in a certain way to reality. The most important structural, otherwise structural, feature of a sentence is the closedness of the mutual syntactic connections of the components of the sentence. No word in a given sentence can act as a main or dependent element in relation to words outside it. This phenomenon is based on the correspondence of each sentence to a certain structural scheme, the set of which for each language is finite and specific.
There are several types of languages according to their grammatical structure. The most common and well-known: synthetic and analytical. For example, Russian is a synthetic language. This means that different grammatical meanings - tense, gender, number - are expressed within one word: prefixes, suffixes, endings are added. To change the meaning grammatically, you need to change the word itself.
English is an analytical language. Its grammar is built according to different laws. In such languages, grammatical meanings and relationships are conveyed not through word changes, but through syntax. That is, prepositions, modal verbs and other individual parts of speech and even other syntactic forms are added. For example, in English, word order also has grammatical meaning.
Of course, English cannot be called an absolutely analytical language, just as Russian is not completely synthetic. These are relative concepts: there are simply much fewer inflections in English (endings, suffixes and other parts of a word that change it) than in Russian. But in a “real” analytical language they should not exist at all.
One of the main features of English analyticism
- words can move from one part of speech to another in the same form. Only the context and word order help us understand that what is meant is not a noun, but a verb.
Compare:
The air
is polluted in this area.
– The air in this area is polluted. 
We have to air the room. - We need to ventilate the room.
In analytical English, you can make complex words from several words without changing the constituent parts, without using connecting parts of the word. Sometimes such “composites” can consist of five to seven or even more words.
For example:
HeisanannoyingI-know-everything-in-the-worldstudent. “He’s one of those annoying students who thinks he knows everything.”
Each analytical language has its own developmental characteristics.
For example, in English, unlike other European languages, verbs are more susceptible to analyticity, rather than adjectives or nouns. To change the tense of a verb, you often have to use auxiliary verbs and function words rather than inflections: havebeendoing , waseating , willcall .
Linguists say that over time, analytical languages become synthetic, and vice versa. Probably, in a few hundred years the English language will acquire an extensive system of inflections and get rid of auxiliary verbs and prepositions. But for now we have to learn a complex system of tenses, numerous phrasal verbs and not forget about word order in the English language.
In the languages of the world, there are two main groups of ways to express grammatical meanings: 1) synthetic methods and 2) analytical. Synthetic methods are characterized by the connection of a grammatical indicator with the word itself (this is the motivation of the term synthetic). Such an indicator, introducing grammatical meaning “inside the word,” can be ending, suffix, prefix, internal inflection(i.e. alternation of sounds in the root, for example, flow - flow - stream), change accents(legs - legs),suppletive modification word basics (I - me, I go - I go, good - better),transfix(in Semitic languages: a complex consisting of several vowels, which is “woven” into a three-consonantal root, adding lexico-grammatical and syntactic meanings to it and thus completing the root to the required word form), repeat morphemes.
A common feature of analytical methods is the expression of grammatical meaning outside the word, separately from it - for example, using prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliary verbs and other function words, as well as using word order and the general intonation of the utterance.
Most languages have both analytical and synthetic means of expressing grammatical meanings, but their proportion varies. Depending on which methods predominate, languages of synthetic and analytical types are distinguished. Synthetic languages include all Slavic languages (except Bulgarian), Sanskrit, ancient Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, Yakut, German, Arabic, Swahili and many others. etc.
Analytical languages include all Romance languages, Bulgarian, English, Danish, Modern Greek, Modern Persian and many others. etc. Analytical methods predominate in these languages, but synthetic and grammatical means are also used to one degree or another.
Languages in which there are almost no possibilities for synthetic expression of a number of grammatical meanings (as in Chinese, Vietnamese, Khmer, Laotian, Thai, etc.) at the beginning of the 19th century. called amorphous(“formless”), i.e. as if devoid of form, but Humboldt already called them insulating.
It has been proven that these languages are by no means devoid of grammatical form, just a number of grammatical meanings (namely syntactic, relational meanings) are expressed here separately, as if “isolated”, from the lexical meaning of the word.
There are languages in which a word, on the contrary, turns out to be so “overburdened” with various auxiliary and dependent root morphemes that such a word turns into a sentence in meaning, but at the same time remains formalized as a word. Such a “word-sentence” device is called incorporation(lat. incorporatio -"inclusion in one's composition", from lat. in- "in and corpus -"body, a single whole"), and the corresponding languages - incorporating, or polysynthetic(some Indian languages, Chukchi, Koryak, etc.).
4. Morphological typology of the languages of E. Sapir.
The new typological classification belongs to the American linguist E. Sapir (1921). Believing that all previous classifications are “a neat construction of the speculative mind,” E. Sapir made an attempt to give a “conceptual” classification of languages, based on the idea that “every language is a formalized language,” but that “a classification of languages, built on the distinction of relations, purely technical” and that languages cannot be characterized from only one point of view. Therefore, E. Sapir bases his classification on the expression of different types of concepts in language: 1) root, 2) derivational, 3) mixed-relational and 4) purely relational (See Chapter IV, § 43.). The last two points must be understood in such a way that the meanings of relations can be expressed in the words themselves (by changing them) together with lexical meanings - these are mixed relational meanings; or separately from words, for example, word order, function words and intonation - these are purely relational concepts. The second aspect of E. Sapir is the very “technical” side of expressing relations, where all grammatical methods are grouped into four possibilities: A) isolation (i.e. ways of function words, word order and intonation), b) agglutination, With) fusion (the author deliberately separates two types of affixation, since their grammatical tendencies are very different) (Ibid.) and d) symbolization, where internal inflection, repetition and method of stress are combined. (In the case of tone stress, for example in the Shilluk language (Africa), jit with a high tone means “ear”, and with a low tone - “ears” - a very similar fact to the alternation of vowels). The third aspect is the degree of “synthesis” in grammar in three stages: analytical, synthetic and polysynthetic, i.e. from the absence of synthesis through normal synthesis to polysynthesis as “oversynthesis” (from the Greek policies- “a lot” and synthesis- “connection”). From all that has been said, E. Sapir obtains a classification of languages shown in the table:
|
Basic type |
Degree of synthesis | ||
|
A. Simple purely relational languages |
1) Isolating 2) Isolating with agglutination |
Analytical |
Chinese, Annamese (Vietnamese), Ewe, Tibetan |
|
B. Complex purely relational languages |
1) Agglutinating, isolating |
Analytical |
Polynesian |
|
2) Agglutinating |
Synthetic |
Turkish |
|
|
3) Fusion-agglutinating |
Synthetic |
Classical Tibetan |
|
|
4) Symbolic |
Analytical | ||
|
B. Simple mixed-relational languages |
1) Agglutinating |
Synthetic | |
|
2) Fusion |
Analytical |
French |
|
|
B. Complex mixed-relational languages |
1) Agglutinating |
Polysynthetic | |
|
2) Fusion |
Analytical |
English, Latin, Greek |
|
|
3) Fusional, symbolic |
Slightly synthetic |
Sanskrit |
|
|
4) Symbolic-fusion |
Synthetic |
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