Currently, the following bowed instruments are used in symphonic and opera music: violin, viola, cello and double bass, which are the result of the long-term development of various previous types of bowed-string instruments.
The time of origin of bowed instruments is difficult to determine. There is an assumption that their cradle was the East and that Arab musicians brought the so-called rebab and kemancha to Spain in the 8th century. But at the same time, in Europe in the 8th century, a five-string bowed instrument, the krotta, was already known. The oldest bowed instruments were without frets. Frets appeared only in the 14th century with the spread of the lute, which was also brought to Europe by the Arabs and revolutionized the design of bowed instruments.
Subsequently, bowed instruments underwent great design changes, and, ultimately, instruments called viols adopted a form with carved sides.
According to the method of execution, viols fell into two groups: hand-held viols (viola da braccio), closest to the violin and viola, and foot or knee viols (viola da gamba).
Hand viols were divided into treble, alto and tenor; foot viols - for bass and double bass. The latter sounded an octave lower than the bass ones.
All these viols were very different from modern violins, violas and cellos in their external shape, the number of strings and the shape of the sound holes.
The resonance box of viols in the upper part (towards the neck) is not
was sharpened a lot, the side cutouts had the shape of a regular semicircle, both soundboards were almost completely flat, and the sound holes had the shape of two crescent-shaped cutouts, located like this: () or like this:) (.
The number of strings on viols ranged from five (French treble viol) to seven.
Sometimes, along with playing gut strings, underlying resonant (aliquot) metal strings were also stretched on viols. The strings on the viols were located at short distances from each other and very close to the fretted neck; As a result of this, and also because of the small curvature of the bridge, it was not possible to play any loudly on one of the middle strings
As artistic demands increased and performance techniques developed, bowed instruments also improved. The final design of instruments, which provided the most noble, full tone and significantly wider artistic and technical possibilities, developed by the 16th century, first for the violin, and then was extended to larger instruments. Gradually, ancient bowed instruments - viols - were supplanted by new, more advanced instruments, which were created slowly, in an evolutionary way. The viola, cello and double bass replaced the viols corresponding to their size much later than the violin.
In the 16th-17th centuries, entire schools of masters were already working on the construction of a new type of bowed instruments. The most famous of the violin schools of this time were: Brescia (Gasparo da Salo, Magini family), Cremona (Amati, Stradivari, Guarneri families), Tyrolean (Jacob Steiner).
Of the Brescian masters, the Magini family especially stood out; the best violins were created by Giovanni Magini (1580-1651).
The most prominent representative of the Amati family was Nicola Amati (1596–1684), teacher of Andrea Guarneri and Antonio Stradivari. This latter (1644-1737), in turn, was the most famous of the masters of the Stradivarius family. Antonio Stradivari's best violins are still considered unsurpassed for their exceptional sound qualities.
The Guarneri family worked in the 17th-18th centuries. The most outstanding of the family's violin makers was Giuseppe Guarneri (1698-1744), who created a number of instruments that rivaled the best works of Stradivari. One of the remarkable masters of bowed instruments was the Russian master Ivan Batov (1767-1841), a serf of Count Sheremetev, who created a number of violins, violas and cellos of exceptionally high quality.
Among the masters of the 19th century, we must first mention the Frenchman J. B. Villioma (1798-1875). His imitations of Stradivarius violins became widely known.
In the 20th century, violinists began to receive great attention from bowed instruments of Russian masters - A. I. Leman, E. F. Vitachek, T. F. Podgorny.
Modern bowed instruments. Like ancient ones, modern bowed instruments, depending on size, are divided into 2 groups: manual tools and foot.
Hand-bowed instruments include the violin and viola, and foot instruments include the cello and double bass. 
1
- top deck and 2
- lower deck - the main resonating parts (together with the shell they make up the body of the instrument); inside between the decks there is a choker (stick-spacer) to transmit vibrations from the top deck to the bottom; 3
- shell, 4
— the neck is a place for pressing the strings (has curvature); 5
- underneck or half-neck (hanging freely) - used to secure the strings; 6
- neck - carries the neck; 7
- peg box - to strengthen the pegs; 8
- curl - the end of the peg box (there are shaped ones; ancient masters often made a curl in the form of a man’s or a lion’s head); 9
- pegs - used for tensioning strings (wooden, as opposed to metal pegs of plucked instruments); 10
- nut - serves to limit the sounding part of the strings (has a curvature similar to the neck); 11
- stand - limits the sounding part of the strings, supports them, creates curvature in the arrangement of the strings, transmits their vibrations to the soundboards; 12
- button - serves to secure the half-neck (the cello and double bass also have a pin stop); 13
- ephas - outlets; 14
- mustache - frames the soundboards; 15
— chinrest (available only for hand tools); 16
- spire (available only for foot instruments).
Strings. All bowed instruments have four strings. The strings used are metal (steel) and gut (wire), including those entwined with aluminum or silver thread. Recently, along with intestinal strings, nylon strings have also become widespread.
Thin metal strings, not entwined with gimp, are used only for the 1st string of the violin.
Intestinal3 strings of various thicknesses are used: for the 2nd and 3rd strings of the violin (now out of use),
for the 1st and 2nd strings of the viola (now also falling out of use),
for the 1st and 2nd strings of a cello (the intestinal second strings of a cello are almost never found these days),
for the 1st and 2nd strings of the double bass.
Metal strings entwined with aluminum thread are used:
for 2nd string of violin,
for 1st string viola,
for the 1st string of cello. 
1 - shaft, or cane (springs in the direction opposite to the hair); 2 - a block for securing the hair (the other end of the hair is fixed at the end of the cane or shaft), moves along the cane by rotating the screw; 3 — a screw for tensioning the hair by moving the block; 4 - hair (horse), rubbed with rosin to prevent silent sliding along the string; 5 - the end of a cane, or shaft.
Intestinal (Nylon) strings entwined with aluminum thread are used:
for the 3rd string of a violin, for the 2nd string of a viola, for the 2nd string of a cello.
Intestinal strings entwined with silver thread are used:
for the 4th string of a violin, for the 3rd and 4th strings of a viola, for the 3rd and 4th strings of a cello, for the 3rd and 4th strings of a double bass.
At the same tension, a thinner string sounds higher than a thicker one, and a longer string sounds lower than a shorter one.
A string entwined with a thread sounds lower than a string of the same diameter that is not entwined with silver or aluminum thread.
The length of the strings is determined by the size of the instrument. This refers to the length of the sounding section of the string - between the nut and the stand.
Vibration of strings. The strings, fixed at two points (on the peg and on the neck) and tensioned by the pegs to the required degree, have a sounding part between the nut (lower boundary) and the bridge (upper boundary).
The pitch of the sound depends on the tension of the string. The tighter the string is, the higher the sound.
Sound is produced as a result of the vibration of an elastic body (the source of sound - in this case, a string), brought out of a state of equilibrium and seeking to restore this equilibrium: 
A stretched string - an elastic body A-B - brought out of a state of equilibrium in position a, strives to return to the original position a, but thanks to inertia it crosses the boundary of a and reaches position a. Then, trying to return to position a again, it also, thanks to inertia, reaches almost position a" then back almost to position a"... So the string will oscillate, gradually calming down, until the oscillations completely stop, that is, until the moment when it again takes position a.
The distance between points a" and a" is called scope or vibration amplitude.
The time during which the body travels the distance from a" to a" and back to a" is called the duration or period of complete oscillation.
As the vibrations of the string calm down, the sound gradually fades and stops completely when the string returns to position a.
The place of the greatest amplitude of vibration of the string (its middle) is called an antinode, and the place where the string is fixed (where the amplitude is zero) is called a node.
Sound a is obtained as a result of 440 double vibrations (880 simple) 1 per second. Twice the number of vibrations produces a sound an octave higher, and half the number produces a sound an octave lower.
So a has the number of double oscillations equal to: 440:2 = 220.
A -220: 2=110,
A 1 - 110: 2 = 55,
A 2 - 55:2 = 27.5
Accordingly, a 2 has the number of double oscillations equal to: 440*2=880.
and 3 is 880*2=1760, and 4 is 1760*2 = 3520.
The lowest sounds are produced by long and thick strings (wound with gimp). High sounds are produced by short, thin strings. These conditions are maintained at relatively equal tension. Strings that are artificially weakened (that is, strings that are loosely tensioned), although they will approximately give the desired tone, are flabby, weak and not stable in pitch. On the contrary, over-tightened strings produce a hollow and unexpressive tone.
Left hand technique. A variety of pitch possibilities is achieved on stringed instruments by shortening the stretched strings with the fingers of the left hand and thus obtaining sounds higher than those produced by strings that are not shortened by pressing the fingers to the fingerboard.
Strings are called open if the sound is obtained from the vibration of the entire string, not shortened by pressure from the fingers of the left hand. The sounding part of the open (empty) string is located between the nut and the bridge. The fingers of the left hand shorten the string, pressing it in various places against the fingerboard. Then the sounding part of the string will be between the pressing point and the stand.
If you shorten the string by 1/2 (in half), that is, press it in the middle, then the sounding part of it will become half as long as that of the open string, and the sound will be an octave higher than the sound of the open string.
If you shorten the string by 1/3”, that is, press it at a distance of 1/3 from the nut, then the sounding part will be equal to 2/3 of the length of the open string, and the sound will be a fifth higher than that of the open string.
If you shorten the string by 1/4, then the sounding part will be equal to 3/4 of the open string and the sound will be a quart higher than that of the open string.
If you shorten the string by 1/5, then the sounding part will be equal to 4/5 of the open string and the sound will be a major third higher than that of open string 2.
If you shorten the string by 1/6, then the sounding part will be equal to 5/6 of the open string and the sound will be a minor third higher than that of the open string.
If you shorten the string by 1/9, then the sounding part will be equal to 8/9 of the open string and the sound will be a major second higher than that of the open string.
If you shorten the string by 1/16, then the sounding part will be equal to 15/16 of the open string and the sound will be a small second higher than that of the open string.
Overtones. A string, like any elastic body, experiences a complex oscillatory motion consisting of a number of simple ones. It vibrates not only along its entire length, but at the same time in individual parts: two halves, three-thirds, four-quarters, five-fifths, six-sixths, etc.
Each partial vibration produces its own sound. Therefore, when a string vibrates, in addition to the main tone corresponding to the vibration of the entire string, we hear a whole series of higher overtones, called partial tones, or overtones, corresponding to the vibrations of half the string (2nd overtone), the third string (3rd overtone), quarter string (4th overtone), etc.
These oscillatory movements of the string can be represented by the following diagram: 
Thus, each part of the vibrating string produces a corresponding ordinal overtone. A successive series of overtones is called a natural or acoustic rock.
Let us assume that when vibrating the whole string produces the sound (fundamental tone) C. In this case, by successively dividing the string into two halves, three-thirds, four-quarters, etc.
Flajolets. A harmonic is an overtone isolated from the timbre of a sounding string. Harmones arise as a result of the division of a sounding string into a number of segments of equal length and therefore equally sounding. This is achieved by lightly touching (and not at all firmly pressing!) a finger to any place where the string is divided into a certain number of equal parts. It is clear that such a light touch will not cause the usual shortening of the string, but will only highlight one overtone 
(namely, having a node here) at the expense of all the others (having antinodes in this place). It does not require any special explanation that the place of the greatest amplitude of oscillation - the antinode - cannot form where a light touch of a finger prevents it; on the contrary, it best promotes strong knot formation.
If you lightly touch the middle of the string with your finger, it will split into two equally sounding parts (from the nut to the point of contact and from it to the bridge). Each of these parts will be equal to 1/2 of the open string, and we will hear the 2nd natural sound (harmonic), that is, a sound an octave higher than the open string. With full pressure in this place, only half of the string will sound, that is, a normal (non-flajolet) sound will arise an octave higher than that of the open string. In this case, the sound of the harmonic corresponds in pitch to the usual sound of the string, but differs from it in timbre.
If you touch at a place corresponding to 1/3 or 2/3 of the length of the string, it will be divided into three equal, equally sounding segments, and each of them will be equal to 1/3 of the open string. The 3rd natural sound (flageolet) will sound, that is, a sound an octave + fifth higher than the open string.
When fully pressed to 1/3 of the length of the string, the sound will be a fifth higher than the open one, and when pressed 2/3 of the length of the string, a fifth will sound through the octave, that is, a non-harmonic sound, corresponding in height to the 3rd overtone.
If you touch the string in a place corresponding to 1/4 or 3/4 of its length (but not at 2/4 = 1/2, since here the 2nd natural sound is obtained), then it will be divided into four equal, equally sounding segments , and each of them will be equal to 1/4 of the open string. The 4th natural sound (flageolet) will sound, that is, a sound two octaves higher than the open string.
When fully pressed to 1/4 the length of the string, the sound will be a fourth higher than the open one, and when pressed to 3/4 of the length of the string, an octave will sound through the octave, that is, a non-harmonic sound corresponding to the 4th overtone.
Sequential division of the string into parts (for extracting harmonics). If we take the sound of the whole string as C, then:
2nd natural sound - octave harmonic (it can be obtained in the place where, with a normally pressed string, an octave is obtained): 
3rd natural sound - fifth harmonic (it can be obtained in the place where, with a normally pressed string, a fifth is obtained): 
The 4th natural sound is a quart harmonic (it can be obtained in the place where, with a normally pressed string, a quart is obtained):
The 5th natural sound is a major third harmonic (it can be obtained in the place where, with a normally pressed string, a major third is obtained):
The 6th natural sound is a minor third harmonic (it can be obtained in the place where, with a normally pressed string, a minor third is obtained): 
The 7th natural sound arises as a result of dividing the string into seven parts (it can be obtained in the place where, with the string pressed normally, an interval slightly less than a minor third is obtained): 
The 8th natural sound arises as a result of dividing the string into eight parts (it can be treated in the place where, with the string pressed normally, the interval is slightly less than the minor third):
On short strings, the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and sometimes 5th overtones are used, on long strings, sometimes also the 6th and 8th overtones.
It is better to extract the high overtones of the 6th and 8th at places 5/6 and 7/8 of the string length (that is, closer to the bridge, to the bow) than at 1/6 and 1/8 of the string length (that is, closer to the nut ). Under this condition, these overtones also appear on shorter strings.
The timbre of harmonics differs sharply from the timbre of the same sounds extracted in the usual way, since it is not colored by overtones. The harmonics sound very quiet and gentle, they are removed carefully because of the danger of accidentally turning a finger touch into a simple press, which destroys the harmonic.
Vibration is not possible on natural harmonics.
Note. Vibration is a slight swing of the left hand around the axis (the place where the string is pressed), imparting to the sound some fluctuation in pitch (imitation of the human voice). It is clear that vibration is completely impossible on open strings.
Harmones are indicated by an O above each note. 
Natural and artificial harmonics. Harmonics can be natural or artificial.
Natural harmonics are produced on open strings, that is, on strings that have not been shortened by pressure from the fingers of the left hand.
Artificial harmonics are obtained from an already shortened (pressed) string.
Artificial harmonics are performed with two fingers, one of which - closer to the saddle - presses the string tightly, and the second touches it at the corresponding point between the point of pressure and the stand.
Artificial harmonics are possible, starting from the fourth and further, in the direction of decreasing the interval (major third, minor third, etc.).
It is not possible to take artificial harmonics larger than a quart, since the normal stretch of the fingers even on a violin (the smallest instrument) does not exceed a quart.
Note. On the violin, as an exception (by strongly stretching the fingers), a harmonic of fifths is possible2.
Recording artificial harmonics. A complete recording of artificial harmonics includes three elements: 1) the place where the string is tightly pressed (shortened) is indicated by a regular note of the required duration; 2) the place where the shortened string is touched to separate it into parts is indicated by a diamond located above the note; 3) finally, the small note above the rhombus shows the real sonority of the harmonic: 
Methods of sound extraction. There are three ways to produce sound on bowed instruments: 1) by moving the bow along the string; 2) by plucking the finger and 3) by striking the string with the reed (shaft) of the bow.
Bow on the string(game technique called agso). As the bow moves, the string vibrates continuously and produces a melodious tone. The stronger the pressure of the bow and the faster its movement (to some extent, both of these factors are interdependent), the stronger the sound of the string. However, too much bow pressure can prevent the string from vibrating freely, in which case the forced sound turns into the creaking of rosin-coated horsehair on the string.
The flexibility and expressiveness of the sound of bowed instruments is based on the fact that the performer can directly influence the sound production at all times and give an infinite number of nuances from piano to forte.
Pinch(game technique called pizzicato). With this method, the string is brought out of equilibrium once. After plucking, the sound quickly fades and its subsequent sound cannot be influenced. Therefore, it makes no sense to write pizzicato otherwise than in quarters or, if necessary, in smaller durations.
Plucking is usually done with the finger of the right hand, although in practice there are techniques for playing pizzicato with the fingers of the left hand (mainly on open strings).
When transitioning from pizzicato to performance, the word agso is placed with a bow. Changing the techniques of agso and pizzicato implies at least a minimal break in sound, especially if during agso the bow was directed downward in its movement, due to which the right hand moved far away from the string.
Cane tapping(with the shaft) of a bow on a string (a playing technique called col legno) is more of a percussion effect, since in the resulting sound the knocking predominates over the intonation (the definiteness of the pitch and timbre of the sound).
Place where the bow is drawn along the string. The usual place for holding the bow is the middle of the distance between the bridge and the end of the fingerboard. This is where the fullest and most expressive sound is produced.
Sometimes, for a special effect, the sound is produced by holding the bow at the bridge (this technique is called sul ponti-cello). The sound obtained in this way is quiet, but sharp and has a characteristic color similar to the sound of a harmonica. The sound can also be produced on the fingerboard itself (this technique is called sul tasto). This technique produces a sound of a gentle-cold tone, somewhat flute-like in nature.
The peculiar nature of the sound obtained when playing with a sul tasto or sul ponticello bow is explained by the fact that when holding a sul tasto bow, low natural sounds (4th and 5th) that have nodes at the point of bowing are destroyed, and when holding a sul ponticello bow The main tone is partially turned off. 
Basic principles of bowing technique (the so-called right-hand technique). Driving the bow down (from the block to the end) is indicated by the sign ∏, up (from the end to the block) by the sign V. In the first case (leading downwards) it naturally turns out diminuendo, in the second (leading upwards) - crescendo, since the more the weight of the hand itself moves away from the string, the easier it is to extract a quiet, gentle sound from the instrument - and vice versa. Consequently, pianissimo comes out better when played with the end of the bow, while the sharp accents of fortissimo are closer to the block.
When playing forte, the bow moves along the string faster than when playing piano, so long notes or a large number of notes per bow are only possible with piano.
Strokes. Strokes are various techniques for moving the bow. They convey the semantic meaning of the music being performed, and therefore they can rightfully be considered the most important means of musical expressiveness when playing bowed instruments.
Over a long period of time, the richest practice of playing - primarily on the violin and cello - has accumulated many varied strokes, between which in some cases it is difficult to draw a definite line and classify them. Therefore, below we will focus on the most basic strokes and only briefly touch on some of their most common varieties.
The main strokes should be considered detache, legato, various types of staccato and spiccato, as well as tremolo. Detache (French) - a stroke with a distinct attacc, clearly expressed declamatory character. This stroke is used to perform energetic phrases that require great fullness and richness of tone: 
In the fast movement of the detache stroke, constructions of the motor order can also be played, including rather rapid passages (if it is necessary to achieve sufficient fullness of sound):
If detache is performed with the longest bow length for a given tempo, up to using its entire swing, then this technique is usually called grand detache:
As can be seen from all the above examples, the main distinguishing feature of detache, regardless of tempo, sound strength and bow swing, is the execution of one note for each bow movement in one direction. Based on this feature, this and other similar strokes (for example, the sautille described below) are called divided.
On the contrary, legato is a stroke that includes several notes on one bow. In contrast to the declamatory character of the detache, the smooth movement of legato to the greatest extent reproduces precisely the song, ariatic side of human singing.
In legato notation, each league represents one direction of the bow. Here are examples of melodic phrases performed legato: 
Staccato strokes - staccato and spiccato - differ from each other in that staccato is performed without lifting the bow from the string, while spiccato is based precisely on bouncing the bow after each contact with the string.
The essence of staccato is an energetic push with the bow, after which there is an instant weakening of the sound. In the above staccato passage, all eighth notes and, of course, sixteenth notes are played (each sixteenth note is played by moving the bow in the same direction as the previous eighth note separated from it by a pause): 
As for the quarter notes with dots above them, in this case the length of the sound itself (push with the bow) is much shorter than the period of attenuation of the sonority (almost complete stop of the movement of the bow). In addition, before each new push there is a real stop to change the direction of movement. A similar way of playing staccato with an accentuated divided stroke is called martele. It is sometimes indicated by elongated pointed wedges above the notes or by verbal indication.
Each note of a regular staccato can be played either in the same or in the opposite direction of bow movement in relation to the preceding one(s).
In the example below, a punctuated staccato can be played in two ways: with a split stroke (that is, by alternating ∏ and V) and two staccato notes per bow direction: 
Therefore, two or more staccato notes can be played in one direction. Each of them corresponds to its own special light movement (push) with the bow.
Let us give, for example, a fairly common technique in virtuoso practice of playing a significant number of staccato notes in one direction of the bow (easier upward); It should only be noted that during group play this stroke does not apply: 
As mentioned above, spiccato is the main bouncing stroke. The main feature of such strokes is their lightness and airiness.
Here are a few examples of the different uses of spiccato. A graceful, moderately paced excerpt from the Nutcracker Overture: 
Sautille differs from ordinary spiccato in that as the speed increases, the performer ceases to control the individual movements of the bow and from that moment on, the mechanical, motor nature of the stroke begins to predominate, regulated by the elasticity of the bow, its ability to push off from the string.
An example of sautille is “Flight of the Bumblebee” from “The Tale of Tsar Saltan”: 
All spiccato are played with the middle third of the bow - in forte closer to the block, in piano closer to its end. In addition, as the speed of movement increases (this especially applies to motor varieties), the bow also moves from the middle to its end.
Of the jumping undivided strokes, the most common is the throwing stroke - the so-called ricochet. This stroke is possible not only on one string: 
but also when transitioning from string to string, for example, when performing arpeggiated groupings on three or four strings:
It is hardly necessary to specially explain that with the help of jumping motor strokes it is impossible to achieve any significant sound strength.
One of the most common orchestral strokes is tremolo. It is the repetition of one note by quickly alternating movement of the bow in different directions without lifting it from the string (the so-called tremolo of the right hand). The louder the sonority you need to produce when playing tremolo, the greater the swing you have to make with the bow. Loud sonority is produced by the middle of the bow with a large swing of its movement; on the contrary, a barely audible tremolo (literally a rustle) can be obtained only at the end of the bow, with an almost imperceptible movement of it.
Note. This type of tremolo should not be confused with a sequence of two rapidly alternating notes on one bow (the so-called left-hand tremolo): 
Tremolo is therefore primarily an orchestral touch because the unity of its sound is made up of individual tremolos of different speeds of movement of the right hand (of course, except in cases where the speed of the repeated notes is strictly prescribed by the author).
The practice of playing bowed instruments has developed a significant number of stroke techniques that make the performance lively, meaningful, and expressive. Unfortunately, not all of these techniques are accurately reflected in the musical notation, and performers often only have to guess which technique should be used to play this or that phrase, how to distribute parts of the bow so as not to disfigure the music with incorrect accents, where it is better to use staccato and where spiccato, etc., etc. In other words, the composer largely depends on the performers - their tact, sensitivity, musicality. All this all the more obliges each author of a new work to indicate in detail all his intentions in the score. Of course, in the process of work, performers will be able to offer more successful options for phrasing (shading), but we must keep in mind that correct proposals, in turn, can only arise on the basis of an accurate understanding of the author’s intention.
Let us give several examples where the nature of the stroke decisively determines the phrasing and therefore requires detailed instructions in this regard.
then this will already be a manner of playing called marcato (highlighting, emphasizing).
Recently, another stroke has become firmly established in the practice of playing - the middle one between the strongly accentuated detache and spiccato. In relation to the example just given in the recording, this performance technique would look like this:
that is, it would differ from previous methods of performance in that each accented note would be separated from the adjacent one by a short pause (by lifting the bow from the string).
Among the techniques of playing bowed instruments, the performance of three- and four-note chords occupies a special place. Usually they are played as if composed of two intervals included in each chord: 
Some performers suggested playing chords arpeggiated: 
however, it is the first method that has become widespread.
Sequences of three- and four-note chords are possible, each of which is taken with the bow down. With proper bow pressure, three-note chords can be played non-arpeggiato, that is, all three strings can be played simultaneously (with the bow drawn closer to the fingerboard; as the sonority increases, it moves closer to the bridge). It goes without saying that pop arpeggiato is a short-term, abrupt effect.
Four-note chords generally cannot be played pop arpeggiato, although in a significant forte the order of intervals forming the chord can be reduced to a minimum.
Here is a clear example of the group use of three- and four-note chords, most of which are played pop arpeggiato.
Bowed string instruments are a group of musical instruments with sound production carried out mainly in the process of holding a bow along stretched strings. There are a large number of folk bowed instruments. In modern academic music playing, four stringed instruments are used: Violin, Viola, Cello, Double bass. The range of the entire bowed group covers almost seven octaves from C counter octave to C fifth octave. Bows were formed and improved around the end of the 17th century, only the bow in its modern form appeared by the end of the 18th century. Despite the timbre differences between individual instruments of the group, they sound homogeneous as a group. This is explained by the unity of design and the general principle of sound production. The source of sound for all instruments is strings; sound production is made with a bow (arco) or fingers (pizzicato). Violin- a high-register bowed string musical instrument. It is of folk origin, acquired its modern appearance in the 16th century, and became widespread in the 17th century. It has four strings tuned in fifths: g, d1,a1,e² (small octave G, D, A of the first octave, E of the second octave), range from g (small octave G) to a4 (A of the fourth octave) and higher. The violin's timbre is thick in the low register, soft in the middle and brilliant in the upper. The structure of a violin. The violin consists of two main parts: the body and the neck, along which the strings are stretched. The body of the violin has an oval shape with rounded grooves on the sides forming the “waist”. The roundness of the external contours and waist lines ensures comfortable playing, particularly in high registers. The lower and upper planes of the body - the deck - are connected to each other by strips of wood - shells. Lower soundboard or “bottom”, Upper soundboard or “lid”, Shells, Dashboard, Neck or tailpiece, Loop, Button, Stand. Grif. The neck of the violin is a long block of solid hard wood (ebony or rosewood). Over time, the surface of the fingerboard either wears off or becomes uneven. The lower part of the neck is glued to the neck, which goes into the head, consisting of a tuning box and a scroll. The upper nut is an ebony plate located between the neck and the head, with slots for strings. The grooves in the nut are rubbed with graphite lubricant or graphite (graphite pencil) to reduce friction on the strings and extend their service life. The holes in the nut distribute the strings at an equal distance from each other. The neck is a semicircular part that the performer covers with his hand while playing. The neck and nut are attached to the top of the neck. Strings. The strings pass from the neck, through the bridge, over the surface of the neck, and through the nut to the pegs, which are wound around them in the head. The violin has four strings:
first (“fifth”)- upper, tuned to E of the second octave. The metal solid E string has a ringing, shiny timbre.
second- tuned to A of the first octave. The vein (intestinal or made from a special alloy) solid “la” has a soft, matte timbre.
third- tuned to D of the first octave. The vein (intestinal or artificial fiber) “re”, entwined with aluminum thread, has a soft, matte timbre.
fourth (“bass”)- lower, tuned to G of the small octave. Vein (intestinal or artificial fiber) “salt”, entwined with silver thread, harsh and thick timbre. Bow- A wooden cane that goes into the head on one side, with a block attached on the other. The hair of the ponytail (artificial or natural) is stretched between the head and the block. Horsehair, especially thick hair, has large scales, between which there is rubbing rosin, which has a beneficial effect on the sound. Chin pad. Designed for the convenience of playing as a musician. The lateral, middle and their intermediate locations are selected based on the ergonomic preferences of the violinist. Bridge. It is also designed for the convenience of the musician's playing. Attaches to the back of the violin and is designed to be mounted on the player's shoulder. It consists of a stand (straight or curved, hard or covered with soft fabric, wood, metal or carbon), and fastenings on each side. Necessary electronics, such as a microphone amplifier, are often hidden in a metal structure. The main brands of modern bridges are WOLF, KUN, etc. The strings are pressed four fingers of the left hand to the fingerboard (thumb excluded). The strings are drawn with a bow held in the player's right hand. When pressed with a finger, the length of the vibrating area of the string decreases, due to which the frequency increases, that is, a higher sound is obtained. Strings that are not pressed with a finger are called open and are indicated by a zero when indicating the fingering.
By touching the string with almost no pressure in certain places, harmonics are obtained. Some harmonic sounds go beyond the standard violin range in pitch. The placement of the fingers of the left hand is called fingering (from the word fingering). The index finger is called the first, the middle finger is the second, the ring finger is the third, and the little finger is the fourth. Position is the fingering of four adjacent fingers, spaced one tone or semitone apart. Each string can have seven or more positions. The higher the position, the more difficult it is to play cleanly. On each string, excluding fifths, they go mainly only up to the fifth position inclusive; but on the fifth or first string, and sometimes on the second, higher positions are used - up to the twelfth. Alto(English and Italian viola, French alto, German Bratsche) or violin viola - a bowed stringed musical instrument of the same structure as the violin, but somewhat larger in size, which is why it sounds in a lower register. The viola strings are tuned a fifth below the violin strings and an octave above the cello strings - c, g, d1, a1 (C, G of the small octave, D, A of the first octave). The most common range is from c (up to the small octave) to e3 (mi of the third octave); in solo works, higher sounds can be used. Notes are written in alto and treble clefs. Techniques for playing the viola: Techniques for playing the viola are slightly different from those for playing the violin in terms of sound production and technique, but the playing technique itself is a little more limited due to the larger size, and as a result, the need for greater stretching of the fingers of the left hand. Alto timbre― less bright than violin, but thick, matte, velvety in the lower register, somewhat nasal in the upper register. This viola timbre is a consequence of the fact that the dimensions of its body (“resonator box”) do not correspond to its tuning: with an optimal length of 46–47 centimeters (such violas were made by old masters of Italian schools), a modern instrument has a length of 38 to 43 centimeters [source not 592 days indicated]. Larger violas, approaching classical ones, are played mainly by solo performers with stronger hands and more developed technique. Cello(Italian violoncello, abbreviated cello, German Violoncello, French violoncelle, English cello) - a bowed string musical instrument of the bass and tenor register, known since the first half of the 16th century, of the same structure as a violin or viola, but significantly larger sizes. The cello has wide expressive capabilities and a carefully developed performance technique; it is used as a solo, ensemble and orchestral instrument. Technique of playing the cello. The principles of playing and strokes when performing on the cello are the same as on the violin, however, due to the larger size of the instrument and the different position of the player, the technique of playing the cello is more complicated. Harmonics, pizzicato, thumb bet and other playing techniques are used. The sound of the cello is juicy, melodious and intense, slightly compressed in the upper register on the lower strings. Cello string structure: C, G, d, a (C, G of the large octave, D, A of the small octave), that is, an octave below the alto. Thanks to the developed technique of playing the a string, the range of the cello is very wide - from C (to the major octave) to A4 (A of the fourth octave) and higher. Notes are written in bass, tenor and treble clefs according to their actual sound. Double bass(Italian contrabasso or basso, French contrebasse, German Kontrabass, English double bass) - the largest in size (about two meters in height) and the lowest in sound of the widely used bowed string musical instruments, combining the features of a violin families and families of violas. It has four strings tuned in fourths: E1, A1, D, G (E, A counter octave, D, G large octave), range from E1 (E counter octave) to G1 (G first octave) and higher. Technique of playing the double bass. The double bass is played standing (usually by soloists) or sitting on a high stool (mainly in an orchestra), placing the instrument in front of you. The height of the instrument is adjusted by the length of the spire. The techniques for playing the double bass and the strokes are the same as for the violin, however, due to its large size and the less comfortable position of the bow (in weight), the technique of playing the double bass is significantly limited: large stretching of the fingers and frequent changes of positions make it difficult to perform fast passages and jumps , gamma. Pizzicato sounds good on the double bass. Practically The range of the double bass used is relatively small: from E1 (E contra octave) to H1 (B first octave). In solo virtuoso compositions, higher sounds can also be used. Notes for double bass are written in bass, tenor, and, less often, treble clef an octave higher than the actual sound. Main area applications of the double bass - a symphony orchestra in which the double bass group plays the most important role as the bass foundation. The double bass is also sometimes used in chamber ensembles, as well as in jazz and related genres. In rockabilly and psychobilly, a double bass is used instead of a bass guitar, and they almost always play slap - due to the “clicks”, the double bass complements the rhythmic section, and in groups without a drummer, it successfully replaces it. The double bass has thick, low and very juicy timbre. Because low frequencies travel a relatively short distance, the double bass is rarely used as a solo instrument. Nevertheless, there are many double bass virtuosos who master the technique of playing it and reveal its rich expressive capabilities. For solo performances, ancient master instruments with a velvety, soft sound are often used.
In bowed musical instruments, sounds are produced by rubbing the hair of the bow on the strings; In this regard, their sound characteristics are significantly different from plucked instruments.
Bowed instruments are distinguished by high sound quality and endless possibilities in the field of performance technique and therefore are leading in various orchestras and ensembles and are widely used for solo performance.
This subgroup of instruments includes violins, violas, cellos, double basses, as well as a number of national instruments 1 (Georgian chianuri, Uzbek gidzhak, Azerbaijani kemancha, etc.).
Violin among bowed instruments it is the highest register instrument. The sound of the violin in the upper register is light, silvery, in the middle - soft, gentle, melodious and in the lower register - tense, thick.
The violin is tuned in fifths. The range of the violin is 3 3/4 octaves, from G of the small octave to E of the fourth octave.
They produce solo violins, size 4/4; training, size 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, 1/4, 1/8. Educational violins, unlike solo ones, have a slightly worse finish and lower sound quality. In turn, educational violins, depending on the sound quality and external finish, are divided into educational violins of classes 1 and 2. Class 2 violins differ from class 1 violins in worse sound quality and external finish.
Alto somewhat larger than a violin. In the upper register it sounds tense and harsh; in the middle register the sound is dull (nasal), melodious, in the lower register the alto sounds thick, somewhat rough.
The viola strings are tuned in fifths. Range - 3 octaves, from note to minor octave to note to third octave.
Violas are divided into solo (size 4/4) and educational violas of grades 1 and 2 (size 4/4).
Cello almost 3 times the size of a full-size violin, it is played while sitting. The tool is placed on the floor, after inserting the stop.
The sound of the upper register of the instrument is light, open, chesty. In the middle register it sounds melodious and thick. The lower register sounds full, thick, dense. Sometimes the sound of a cello is compared to the sound of the human voice.
The cello is tuned in fifths, an octave below the alto. The range of the cello is 31/3 octaves - from C to the major octave to E of the second octave.
Cellos are divided into solo and study:
♦ solo (4/4 size) are made according to one of the Stradivarius models; they are intended for solo, ensemble and orchestral performance of musical works;
♦ educational cellos of classes 1 (size 4/4) and class 2 (sizes 4/4, 3/4, 2/4, 1/4, 1/8) differ in sound quality and presentation. Designed for teaching music to students of various ages.
Double bass- the largest of the family of bowed instruments; it is almost 31/2 times longer than a full-sized violin in length. The double bass is played while standing, placed on the floor in the same way as a cello. In its form, the double bass retained the features of ancient viols.
The double bass is the lowest sounding instrument of the bow family. Its sound in the middle register is thick and quite soft. The top notes sound liquid, sharp and intense. The lower register sounds very dense and thick. Unlike other stringed instruments, the double bass is built in fourths and sounds an octave lower than the iotated one. The range of the double bass is 21/2, octaves - from E counter-octave to B-be-mol small octave.
Double basses are divided into: solo (size 4/4); educational 1st grade (size 4/4); educational 2 classes (size 2/4, 3/4, 4/4).
Five-string solo double basses (4/4 size) are also produced, ranging from notes to counter-octave to notes to the second octave.
In their design, the violin, viola, cello and double bass are of the same type. The difference between them is mainly in size and structure. Therefore, this article describes the design of only one bowed instrument - the violin.
The main structural components of a violin are: body, neck with neck, head, tailpiece, stand, peg box, strings.
The figure-eight shaped body amplifies the sound vibrations of the strings. It consists of upper and lower decks (14, 17), which are the most important resonating parts of the violin, and shells (18). The top deck is thickest in the middle, gradually decreasing towards the edges. In cross-section, the decks have the shape of a small arch. The top soundboard has two resonator holes shaped like the Latin letter "f", hence their name - f-holes. The decks are connected by shells.
The tool shells consist of six parts and are attached to six body posts (16, 19). A neck (20) is attached to the upper body post, on which the neck (10) is mounted. The neck serves to press the strings during performance; it has a conical shape along the length, and a slight curvature at the end. A continuation of the neck and its end is the head (3), which has a peg box (12) with side holes for strengthening the pegs. The curl (11) is the end of the peg box and has a different shape (often shaped).
Pegs have the shape of cone-shaped rods with a head and are used to tension and tune the strings. The nut (13) at the top of the neck limits the sounding part of the strings and has a curvature of the neck.
The tailpiece (6) is designed to secure the lower ends of the strings. For this purpose, it has corresponding holes in its wide part.
The stand (15) supports the strings at the required height from the fingerboard, limits the sounding length of the strings and transmits the vibration of the strings to the soundboards.
All bowed instruments have four strings (only the double bass can have five strings).
To produce sound, bows are used, which differ in size and shape.
The bow consists of a reed (2) with a head at the upper end, a tension screw block (5) and a hair (6). The bow reed, on which the evenly spaced hair is pulled, is slightly curved. It has a head (1) at the end and springs in the direction opposite to the hair. A block is used to secure the hair, and at the other end of the bow the hair is secured at the end of the cane in the head. The block moves along the reed by rotating the screw (4), located at the end of the reed, and provides the hair with the required tension.
Bows are divided into solo and educational bows of 1st and 2nd classes.
Spare parts and accessories for bowed instruments
Spare parts and accessories for bowed instruments are: tailpieces and fingerboards, stands, pegs made of stained hardwood or plastic; mutes made of plastic or wood; machines for adjusting the tension of brass strings; plastic violin and viola chinrests; strings; buttons; cases and covers.
IN chordophones, as their name suggests (from the Greek “chord” - string), sound is produced by vibrating tightly stretched strings:
1) through the influence of a bow on them: violin, viola da gamba, ravel, rebec:
Violin
viola da gamba
rebek
2) by directly plucking the strings with your fingers or a plectrum (mediator).In this case, instruments may have a neck, neck and resonators - lute, guitar, mandolin:
Lute.
Guitar.
Mandolin.
or not have a neck with a neck, but represent only a harmonic box or resonator, such as, for example , citharas:
String instruments can be plucked (plucking strings) - psaltery, harp, zither:
Psaltery.
Zither
Gusli.
or drums —dulceme, cimbalone:
Cymbalon.
It is worth noting that in the Middle Ages, the “descendants” of percussion string instruments received a keyboard mechanism. Thus, we should consider the harpsichord, spinet and virginel to be a direct inheritance of the medieval psalterions and zithers, due to the fact that their strings are struck by small picks.
harpsichord
Spinet.
Virginel.
Meanwhile, dulceme belongs to the “genealogy” clavichord, piano and grand piano.
Clavichord.
Piano.
Piano.
Stringed bowed instruments.
The sound of string instruments.
Bowed instruments have been known since the 8th century, and their homeland is considered to be the region of Uzbekistan and the territories near the Aral Sea. From here, bowed instruments spread to the east - into the musical cultures of India and China, while at the same time along the Persian route - to the south and west, reaching Islamic territories. A bowed tongue appeared in the Balkan zone cordafon, who arrived on the European continent through Byzantium. Also on the Iberian (Iberian) Peninsula already in the 11th century we find extensive information and iconography related to bowed instruments, primarily to Ravels(three-string shepherd's fiddle). Lizherika- also an ancient three-stringed instrument of Croatia. Externally, the lizherika is a pear-shaped wooden musical instrument consisting of three strings. The game is played with a bow and accompanies various dances. The musician plays the instrument while sitting, holding the lizherica on his left knee. At the same time, the performer beats out the required rhythm for the dancers with his right foot. When performing in pairs, dancers move around the musician in a circle.
But the most significant bowed instrument of the Middle Ages was viola, also called bowed vihuela and known among musicologists (organologists) as fidula.
In fact, from the named instrument at the end of the 15th century. happened viola da gamba, also known in Castile as vihuela de pierna, bowed vihuela or violon, whose instrumental family was one of the most significant in the Renaissance and Baroque era.
These viols had different timbres and sizes, and they were played resting on the knees (soproano) or placed between the legs (tenor and bass). The range of the viol was fixed by frets, and therefore they were polyphonic in nature. With a flat back and a slightly convex harmonic cover, they had five or six strings, tuned in fourths (seven strings at the end of the 17th century). The repertoire for viols was extremely diverse, primarily from the French school, in which the names of Saint Colombe (d. between 1691 and 1701), De Mache (1685 - 1692), Louis de Ca d'Hervelois (1670 or 1680 - ca. . 1760), Antoine Forqueret (1671 or 1672 - 1745) and Maren Mare (1656 - 1728). Also in England in the 16th - 17th centuries there appeared a whole galaxy of composers who wrote music for viols: Tobias Hume (c. 1569 - 1645), Orlando Gibbons (1583 - 1625), Christopher Tye (1498 - 1572), Matthew Locke (c. 1630 - 1677), Henry Purcell (c. 1659 - 1695) and John Jenkins (1592 - 1678).
But already in the 17th century. viols began to be displaced from the musical Olympus by another family of stringed instruments that replaced them - family of violins (violin, viola, cello and double bass). These instruments immediately gained popularity among both composers and listeners. Compared to violas da gamba, violins have a more pinched body, narrower side contours (shells), a higher stand (and therefore have greater sonority and pitch), four strings tuned in fifths, and a longer bow.
Double bass, cello, viola, violin (from left to right)
Tomaso Albinoni - Adagio - String Quartet
Finally, among the family of bowed string instruments, mention should be made of the so-called viola de rueda (wheel viola), derived from a medieval instrument called "organistrum".
The sound of this instrument is produced by friction against the strings of a wheel driven by a handle. As the wheel begins to rotate, it hits the strings and produces a sound that resembles (to a certain extent) the sound of bagpipes. The instrument had several different bass strings and, in addition, two melody strings in unison. Although its origins are associated with monastic music, it quickly became a folk instrument, typical of traveling musicians who used it to accompany their singing.
Stringed plucked instruments.
Plucked chordophones have also been known since antiquity.
The sound of plucked string instruments.
Already in the 3rd millennium BC. a lyre-like instrument was very popular in Mesopotamia. Exported to Greece, it was improved here and later spread in Rome. According to myth, the first lyre was made by Hermes from a tortoise shell and given to Apollo. It had a flat, round body with a leather membrane. At first, wooden and bone pegs were used to tension the strings, later - metal ones.
Ancient plucked string instruments also include kithara, having a narrow rectangular wooden body (resonator), two handles attached to the body in the longitudinal direction, and a crossbar connecting the handles. The strings were the same length, but of different thicknesses, which made it possible to adjust the pitch of the sound.
Another branch of plucked string instruments is harps are already mentioned in the Book of Samuel (Old Testament). These instruments were also known in Mesopotamia, Africa and parts of Asia. Later the Harp penetrated into Europe, and in the 5th century. became famous in Ireland.
It is also necessary to mention lute, which was very popular in all musical cultures of the world.
Allemande performed by Robert Barto on Baroque Lute. This sonata can be heard on the Naxos recording "Weiss volume 8" 8.570109
But the most popular of the group of plucked chordaphones is undoubtedly the guitar. True, during the Renaissance, the guitar was inferior in popularity to the viol and lute.
Many types of string instruments are combined according to a special characteristic. Their sound is produced when a stretched strip of material (usually wire, silk or gut) begins to vibrate upon contact with a bow or other object. The parameters of the sound produced by a string depend on its length, flexibility, and tension.
In Western countries, the approved string material was gut or wire, while in the East silk was used. Gut was used in ancient times by the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. Wire was not used until the 14th century when wire drawing was invented. This discovery also led to the invention of keyboard instruments with strings (clavichord, harpsichord, clavicombalo and piano). Due to the fact that only wire and gut were known in the West as stringing materials, nowadays keyboard instruments are composed of the above materials.
There are a large number of folk bowed instruments. Occasionally, a part is written out for the lowest stringed instrument, the octobass. The range of the entire bowed group covers almost seven octaves from C counter octave to C fifth octave.
Bows were formed and improved around the end of the 17th century, only the bow in its modern form appeared by the end of the 18th century. Despite the timbre differences between individual instruments of the group, they sound homogeneous as a group. This is explained by the unity of design and the general principle of sound production.
Varieties of stringed instruments:
Harp Lyra Gusli Lute
Violin Alto Cello
Double bass Octobass
