The art of the Arab countries is complex in its origins. In South Arabia, they date back to the cultures of the Sabaean, Minean and Himyarite states (1st millennium BC - 6th century AD), associated with the Mediterranean and the East. Africa. Ancient traditions can be traced in the architecture of the tower-shaped houses of Hadhramawt and the multi-storey buildings of Yemen, the facades of which are decorated with a colored relief pattern. In Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt and the Maghreb, the styles of medieval Arabic art were also formed on a local basis, experiencing some influence from Iranian, Byzantine and other cultures.

Architecture. The main religious building of Islam was the mosque, where the followers of the prophet gathered for prayer. Mosques, consisting of a fenced courtyard and a colonnade (which marked the beginning of the "yard" or "column" type of mosque), in the 1st half of the 7th century. were created in Basra (635), Kufa (638) and Fustat (40s of the 7th century). The column type for a long time remained the main one in the monumental religious architecture of the Arab countries (mosques: Ibn Tulun in Cairo, 9th century; Mutawakkil in Samarra, 9th century; Hassan in Rabat and Koutoubia in Marrakesh, both 12th century; Great Mosque in Algiers, 11th century, etc.) and influenced the Muslim architecture of Iran, the Caucasus, Wed. Asia, India. In architecture, domed structures were also developed, an early example of which is the octagonal mosque Kubbat As-Sahra in Jerusalem (687-691). In the future, various religious and memorial buildings were completed with domes, most often they were crowned with mausoleums over the graves of famous people.

From the 13th century until the beginning of the 16th century. The architecture of Egypt and Syria was closely interconnected. A large fortification was carried out: citadels in Cairo, Aleppo (Aleppo), etc. In the monumental architecture of this time, the spatial principle that dominated the previous stage (the courtyard mosque) gave way to grandiose architectural volumes: over the smooth surface of powerful walls and large portals with deep niches rise tall drums carrying domes. The majestic buildings of the four-aivan are being built (see. Ivan) of the type (previously known in Iran): the maristan (hospital) of Kalauna (13th century) and the mosque of Hassan (14th century) in Cairo, mosques and madrasahs (spiritual schools) in Damascus and other cities of Syria. Numerous domed mausoleums are being built, sometimes forming a picturesque ensemble (the Mamluk cemetery in Cairo, 15-16 centuries). To decorate the walls outside and in the interior, along with carving, inlay with multi-colored stone is widely used. In Iraq in the 15th-16th centuries. the decor uses colored glaze and gilding (mosques: Musa al-Kadima in Baghdad, Hussein in Karbala, Imam Ali in Najaf).

It flourished in the 10th-15th centuries. Arabic architecture of the Maghreb and Spain. In large cities (Rabat, Marrakesh, Fes, etc.), kasbahs were built - citadels, fortified with powerful walls with gates and towers, and medinas - trade and craft quarters. The large columned mosques of the Maghreb with multi-tiered, square minarets are distinguished by an abundance of intersecting naves, a wealth of carved ornaments (mosques in Tlemcen, Taza, etc.) and are magnificently decorated with carved wood, marble and mosaics of multi-colored stones, like numerous madrasas 13-14 centuries in Marocco. In Spain, along with the mosque in Cordoba, other outstanding monuments of Arab architecture have been preserved: the La Giralda minaret, erected in Seville by the architect Jeber in 1184-96, the gate to Toledo, the palace Alhambra in Granada - a masterpiece of Arabic architecture and decorative art of the 13th-15th centuries. Arab architecture influenced the Romanesque and Gothic architecture of Spain ("Mudéjar style"), Sicily and other Mediterranean countries.

Decorative-applied and fine arts. In Arabic art, the principle of decorativeness, characteristic of the artistic thinking of the Middle Ages, was vividly embodied, giving rise to the richest ornament, special in each of the regions of the Arab world, but connected by general laws of development. The arabesque, which goes back to ancient motifs, is a new type of pattern created by the Arabs, in which the mathematical rigor of construction is combined with free artistic imagination. The epigraphic ornament was also developed - calligraphically executed inscriptions included in the decorative pattern.

Ornament and calligraphy, widely used in architectural decoration (carving on stone, wood, knocking), are also characteristic of applied art, which has reached a high flourishing and especially fully expressed the decorative specificity of Arab art. Pottery was decorated with a colorful pattern: glazed household utensils in Mesopotamia (centers - Rakka, Samarra); vessels painted with golden chandeliers of different shades, made in Fatimid Egypt; Spanish-Moorish luster ceramics of the 14th-15th centuries, which had a great influence on European applied art. Arab patterned silk fabrics - Syrian, Egyptian, Moorish - also enjoyed world fame; Arabs also made pile carpets. The finest chasing, engraving and inlay of silver and gold are used to decorate artistic bronze items (bowls, jugs, incense burners and other utensils); products of the 12th-14th centuries are distinguished by special craftsmanship. Mosul in Iraq and some handicraft centers in Syria. The Syrian glass covered with the finest enamel painting and Egyptian products made of rock crystal, ivory, and expensive woods decorated with exquisite carved patterns were famous.

Art in the countries of Islam developed, interacting with religion in a complex way. Mosques, as well as the holy book of the Koran, were decorated with geometric, floral and epigraphic patterns. However, Islam, unlike Christianity and Buddhism, refused to make extensive use of fine arts to promote religious ideas. Moreover, in the so-called. authentic hadiths, legalized in the 9th century, contain a prohibition to portray living beings, and especially humans. Theologians of the 11th-13th centuries (Ghazali and others) these images were declared the gravest sin. However, artists throughout the Middle Ages depicted people and animals, real and mythological scenes. In the first centuries of Islam, while theology had not yet developed its aesthetic canons, the abundance of realistic paintings and sculptures in the interpretation of paintings and sculptures in the palaces of the Umayyads testified to the strength of pre-Islamic artistic traditions. In the future, the depiction in Arabic art is explained by the presence of essentially anti-clerical aesthetic views. For example, in the "Messages of the Brothers of Purity" (10th century), the art of artists is defined "as the imitation of the images of existing objects, both artificial and natural, both people and animals."

Mosque in Damascus. 8th c. Interior. Syrian Arab Republic.

Mausoleums in the Mamluk cemetery near Cairo. 15 - beg. 16th centuries United Arab Republic.

Painting. Fine art flourished in Egypt in the 10th-12th centuries: images of people and genre scenes adorned the walls of buildings in Fustat, ceramic dishes and vases (master Saad, etc.), woven into the pattern of bone and wood carving (panel 11 century from the Fatimid palace in Cairo, etc.), as well as linen and silk fabrics; Bronze vessels were made in the form of figures of animals and birds. Similar phenomena took place in the art of Syria and Mesopotamia in the 10th-14th centuries: court and other scenes are included in the exquisite chased ornament of bronze items with inlay, in the pattern of paintings on glass and ceramics.

The fine beginning was less developed in the art of the Arab West. However, decorative sculpture in the form of animals, patterns with motifs of living creatures, as well as miniatures were also created here (manuscript "The History of Bayad and Riyad", 13th century, Vatican Library). Arab art as a whole was a bright, original phenomenon in the history of the world artistic culture of the Middle Ages. His influence extended to the entire Muslim world and went far beyond its borders.

4. Architecture as an art form

Architecture is one of the oldest forms of art, expressing in religious and public buildings the worldview of the people in a particular historical era, a certain artistic style. ARCHITECTURE (lat. , an artistically organized environment of human life. Also, the art of forming this spatial environment, creating a new reality that has a functional meaning, brings benefits to a person and delivers aesthetic pleasure. The term covers the design of the appearance of a structure; organization of internal space; selection of materials for outdoor and indoor use, design of natural and artificial lighting systems, as well as engineering support systems; electricity and water supply; decorative design. Each of the buildings has a specific purpose: for life or work, recreation or study, trade or transport. All of them are durable, comfortable and necessary for people - these are their mandatory properties.

Types of architecture

There are three main types of architecture:

The architecture of three-dimensional structures. It includes religious and fortified buildings, residential buildings, public buildings (schools, theaters, stadiums, shops, etc.), industrial buildings (factories, factories, etc.);

Landscape architecture associated with the organization of landscape gardening space (squares, boulevards and parks with "small" architecture - gazebos, fountains, bridges, stairs)

Urban planning, covering the construction of new cities and towns and the reconstruction of old urban areas.

Styles of architecture

Architecture is closely connected with the life of society, its views and ideology. Ancient Greek architecture is based on the idea of ​​a perfect, physically and spiritually developed person. Ancient architects built all their buildings according to the proportions of the human body, embodying harmony, opposition to the elements of nature, majestic clarity and humanity. "Era style" (Romanesque, Gothic, etc.) occurs mainly in those historical periods when the perception of works of art is different comparative inflexibility, when it still easily adapts to a change in style.

The great styles - Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, Classicism, Empire / a variation of late classicism / - are usually recognized as equal and equivalent. The development of styles is asymmetrical, which is outwardly expressed in the fact that each style gradually changes from simple to complex; however, from complex to simple, it returns only as a result of a jump. Therefore, style changes occur in different ways: slowly - from simple to complex, and abruptly - from complex to simple. The Romanesque style is replaced by the Gothic for more than a hundred years - from the middle of the 12th century. until the middle of the thirteenth century. simple forms of Romanesque architecture gradually turn into a complicated Gothic style. Within the Gothic, then the Renaissance matures. With the advent of the Renaissance, a period of ideological quests again began, the emergence of an integral system of worldview. And at the same time, the process of gradual complication and disintegration of the simple begins again: the Renaissance becomes more complicated, and after it comes the Baroque. Baroque, in turn, becoming more complex, turns into rococo in some types of art (architecture, painting, applied art). Then again there is a return to the simple, and as a result of the jump, the baroque is replaced by classicism, the development of which in some countries was replaced by the empire.

The reasons for changing pairs of styles are as follows: reality does not choose a style among the existing ones, but creates a new style and transforms the old one. The created style is the primary style, and the transformed style is the secondary style.

Architecture of the native land

Architecture of the Grodno region

Borisoglebskaya (Kolozhskaya) Church, a monument of ancient Russian architecture of the second half of the 12th century.

Mir Castle, included in the UNESCO List, Lida Castle (XIV-XV centuries)

Architecture of the Minsk region

Archcathedral Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary (second half of the 17th – early 18th centuries)

Church of Saints Simeon and Helena (Red Church) - a monument of neo-Gothic architecture with Art Nouveau features (1908 - 1910)

Nesvizh Palace and Park Complex (XVII–XVIII centuries)

Church of the Bernardines in the village of Budslav, Myadel district, a monument of baroque architecture (XVIII century)

Architecture of the Vitebsk region

Sophia Cathedral, an architectural monument of the XI-XVIII centuries.

Church of the Savior Euphrosyne, a monument of ancient Russian architecture (1152 - 1161). Unique frescoes have been preserved on its walls and columns.

Literature:

1. Gerchuk Yu.L. Fundamentals of artistic literacy. –M., 1998

2. Danilov V.N. Methods of teaching fine arts and artistic work. Mn., 2004

3. Kasterin N.P. educational drawing. –M.: Enlightenment, 1996

4. Lazuka B. Sloўnіk terminaў pa arhіtektury, vyyaўlenchamu dekaratyўna-prykladnomu mastatstvu. - Mn., 2001

5. Nemensky B.M. Pedagogy of art. –M.: Enlightenment, 2007

Architecture, design, arts and crafts belong to the utilitarian art forms of creativity. That is, they solve utilitarian problems - movement, organization of everyday life, cities, dwellings, various types of human life and society. In contrast to artistic creativity (fine arts, literature, theater, cinema, poetry, sculpture) which create only spiritual, cultural and aesthetic values ​​that do not have utilitarian value.

Design differs from arts and crafts in technological mass production in contrast to handicraft in dec. applied art. Architecture and design, being related concepts, differ only in spatial scale; city, microdistrict, complex, building in the architecture and environment of the street interior, industrial design, art. design in "design", but for example the interior and landscaping is the subject of both architecture and design.

Design and architecture are utilitarian and artistic activities aimed at creating a subject-spatial environment. Architecture is an older concept, design is more modern, but the difference between them is minimal, often indistinguishable.

The designer forms - a landscape, a square, an element of the urban environment - a kiosk, a fountain, a stop, a clock lamp, a vestibule /, a room, furniture, an office, an interior.

The interior spaces are formed by the architect, and the saturation of the designer is often done by one or the other, this practically manifests the closeness, and often indistinguishability, of the profession of architect. and designer.

Architecture and design belong to expressive arts, which do not directly reflect reality, but create it. Unlike fine arts(painting, graphics, literature, theatre, sculpture) reflecting the material and spiritual reality in an artistic way.

Lecture 1. Design methodology

1. The relationship between the social and ideological state of society and design.

Modern practice of "new eclecticism"

2. Creative method - professional method - "individual manner".

Interaction of methods at different stages of creativity.

Interaction of the method and stages of professional activity

Examples are different

3. Subjective and objective in the creative process.

1. Any activity, and more creative as design, is connected and reflects the social organization of society, cultural development, aesthetic ideals by its own means……. Egypt reflects the complete deification of the objective world and architecture, the Middle Ages, Objection, Classicism, Constructivism. In the 20th century, we experienced the collapse of historicism, the birth of modernism and constructivism in the art of architecture and design. The rejection of traditional forms of composition of details, the principle of free planning was perceived as a revolution and as if reflecting a social revolution, but there was no revolution in the West, and a related movement was born called the modern movement between them there was a real connection (Group Style Holland and the leader of constructivism in Russia). However, this revolution was prepared both by new technologies and materials (zh.b) of the beam truss and new artistic trends - cubism, futurism, expressionism, but also by social upheavals (revolutions, World War 1), new philosophical trends (socialism. Communism, national socialism –fascism)…………., the crisis of bourgeois morality. There was a lot of talk about truthfulness as opposed to bourgeois decorating and decorativism. Changes in the subject and spatial environment were prepared both by the development of philosophical and scientific thought and new artistic abstract currents and the development of technology, but also by social upheavals that gave a certain ideological pathos and formed and developed a life-building principle - which said that reality can be changed based on artistic and spatial ideas and concepts. already formed ideas of the modern movement and constructivism

Art Nouveau as a fashionable trend of the new bourgeoisie and merchants (Morozov's mansion).

Opposite the House of the Commune, the idea of ​​social. cities, the socialization of everyday life as a manifestation in the objective world of the ideas of socialism. The utopian idea that by changing the environment you can change the person himself.

Of course, the objective world of environment and architecture reflects by its means the economic system and the level of development of both society and the ideology and value system prevailing in society, but this dependence is not direct but complex, often the ideas of art for art's sake are adapted and rethought to objective realities.

Mighty fortresses were erected: Frederiksborg in Hillered (1602-1625), Kronborg in Helsingor and others, which included a castle, office buildings, warehouses and barracks, were surrounded by ramparts, ditches and bastions. The king himself was well versed in architecture and supervised the construction of structures. Planned building in the XVII century. completely changed the face of Copenhagen and significantly expanded its size. A palace, a military port, a Renaissance Stock Exchange (1619-1625) were built or laid under Christian IV. Architects L. and X. van Steenwinkel were given the task of building it as a "temple of the new economic policy." As a result of the building enthusiasm, Copenhagen turned into a 17th century city. in one of the most beautiful capitals of Europe. Different stylistic lines coexist here: Gothic, Mannerism, the emerging Baroque.
In Sweden, this period is also marked by the alteration of old buildings and the erection of new buildings. In the Renaissance style, the castles of Gripsholm, Vadstena and Uppsala, palaces, town halls and private houses in cities are being built. Church building, on the other hand, is in decline.
The buildings of that time corresponded to rich interior decoration, more magnificent in Sweden, more restrained in Denmark: chests, benches, secretaries, cabinets. Wooden furniture and panels were covered with the most complex plot painting or carvings on biblical and secular subjects, lined with products made of expensive stones and metals, faience, and wood. The walls were hung with original secular tapestries, a mass of portraits, and paintings. Sculptures appear in the halls, courtyards and gardens, often entire groups, usually in the antique-mythological spirit. There was a special fashion for painted and figured stove tiles, as well as stoves made of iron and cast iron, with cast carvings.
The engineering and construction innovations of that time include plumbing: pipes with taps and complex fountains appeared in castles and palaces. Palaces and castles were decorated by both individual masters and entire workshops. The combination of Western European influence, especially from the Netherlands and Germany, and local traditions have formed examples that are unique in style.
During this period, art was primarily applied in nature. As an important part of the interior, it served to express and consolidate prestige. Hence, for example, the unusual distribution at that time of magnificent epitaphs, ceremonial portraits (sculptural and pictorial), allegorical images.
The most impressive and prestigious form of art was sculpture, which flourished later, with the establishment of the Baroque. Most of the sculptors were foreigners who carried out mainly the orders of the king. "Royal Builder" Hans Steenwinkel led the creation of a number of sculptural rooms
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positions for fountains. Commissioned by Christian IV in Amsterdam, Hendrik de Keyser made sculptures. The famous Neptune Fountain in Frederiksborg was made by the Dutchman Adrian de Fries (1546-1626).
Bas-reliefs, mostly tombstones, but also decorative, were widely used.
Interest in the depiction of a person, in particular in family portraits, became one of the features of the painting of this period. Often portraits were still made according to old models: static, conditional, without psychological characteristics. Ceremonial images of sovereigns and members of their families that came into fashion - solemn, with symbols of power - from the 17th century. were sustained most often in the manner of classicism. The period is also characterized by the abundance of portraits of urban patricians and scholars; they all display black robes and signs of their occupations. Perhaps the earliest portrait of a burgher scholar is that of the humanist Wedel (1578). The portrait of Rodman's family from Flensborg (1591) is expressive, where he himself, his two wives and 14 children stand around the crucifix. Rodman himself, one of his wives and four children, as already deceased, are marked with a cross above their heads. Some other family portraits-epitaphs of burghers were made in the same manner. The connection of the dead and the living undoubtedly reflects the ideas of that time about the unity of life and death, about the inseparable connection between the two worlds. The authors of these portraits are unknown; in general, most of the portraits of burghers and provincial nobility were made anonymously. On the contrary, the royal family and the nobility resorted to the services of famous masters. Approximately 200 portraits of royal and noble persons were painted by the Dutchman Jacob van Doordt, many by the Dutchman Joost Verheiden.
Gradually, a new type of artist is emerging in Denmark - an educated and cultured person, quite rich and close to humanist scientists, often a hereditary artist and collector. Such was, in particular, the prolific portrait painter, the Dutchman Karel van Mander, whose self-portrait with his wife and mother-in-law is a rare image of an intellectual artist for that time. Approximately the same was the artistic family of Isaakz, who made a significant contribution to the culture of the Danish Renaissance; its founder is a descendant of an emigrant from Amsterdam, an art dealer, and one of the grandsons is a humanist and historian, Johann Pontanus. Among the artists there were special specialists in historical canvases, in church painting, etc., but the majority had a broad specialization.
An important type of decorative art was then tapestries, both imported and local, sketches for which were made by prominent
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artists, and the production was carried out in foreign or Danish palace workshops.
In the then decor, as already noted, a prominent place was occupied by woodcarving, traditional and developed in Scandinavia. In churches, altars were decorated with carvings depicting scenes from the Bible, as well as scenes from classical authors characteristic of the Danish Renaissance. Carvings with Gothic and Renaissance ornaments with secular subjects were used to decorate furniture in dwellings. In Norway and Finland, folk wood carvings, which adorned provincial buildings and household items, achieved great success.

The variety of art forms allows us to aesthetically explore the world in all its complexity and richness. There are no major or minor arts, but each art has its own strengths and weaknesses compared to other arts.

Architecture. When a person learned to make tools, his dwelling was no longer a hole or a nest, but an expedient building, which gradually acquired an aesthetic appearance. Construction has become architecture.

Architecture is the formation of reality according to the laws of beauty when creating buildings and structures designed to serve human needs in housing and public spaces. Architecture creates a closed utilitarian-artistic developed world, delimited from nature, resisting the natural environment and allowing people to use the humanized space in accordance with their material and spiritual needs. The architectural image expresses the purpose of the building and the artistic concept of the world and personality, a person's idea of ​​himself and the essence of his era.

Architecture is art and buildings have a certain style. Lomonosov, defining the features of architecture, wrote that architectural art "will erect buildings that are comfortable for habitation, beautiful for sight, solid for longevity." Thanks to architecture, an integral part of the "second nature" arises - the material environment, which is created by the labor of a person and in which his life and activity take place.

Forms of architecture are determined: 1) naturally (depend on geographical and climatic conditions, on the nature of the landscape, the intensity of sunlight, seismic safety); 2) socially (depending on the nature of the social system, aesthetic ideals, utilitarian and artistic needs of society; architecture is more closely connected with the development of productive forces, with the development of technology than other arts).

Applied art. One of the oldest and still developing types of artistic creativity is applied art. It is carried out in household items created according to the laws of beauty. Applied art is things that surround and serve us, create our life and comfort, things made not only as useful, but also as beautiful, having a style and artistic image that expresses their purpose and carries generalized information about the type of life, about the era about the worldview of the people. The aesthetic impact of applied art is daily, hourly, every minute. Works of applied art can rise to the heights of art.

Applied art is national by its very nature, it is born from the customs, habits, beliefs of the people and is directly close to their production activities and everyday life. The pinnacle of applied art is jewelry, which retains its independent significance and is developing today.

Decorative art. Decorative art - aesthetic development of the environment surrounding a person, artistic design of a “second nature” created by a person: buildings, structures, premises, squares, streets, roads. This art invades everyday life, creating beauty and comfort in and around residential and public spaces. Works of decorative art can be a doorknob and a fence, a stained-glass window and a lamp that enter into a synthesis with architecture.

Decorative art incorporates the achievements of other arts, especially painting and sculpture. Painting at first existed in the form of rock and wall art, and only then was it formed as easel painting. Monumental painting on the wall - fresco (the name comes from its technique: "al fresco" - painting with paints on wet plaster) - a genre of decorative art.

Sibiryakov V. N. Pop Art and the Paradoxes of Modernism. M., 1969.

Voyakina S. M. Foreign fine artsXXV. M., 1978.

Western artXXV. M.: "Nauka", 1991.

Kanter. artXXV. M., 1973.

Field V. M. Twentieth century. Visual arts and architecture of countries and peoples of the world. M.: "Soviet artist", 1989.

Maklakova T. G. Architecture of the twentieth century. Lecture notes. M., 1995.

The twentieth century was marked by intensive urbanization due to industrialization, a sharp increase in the urban population at the expense of people with low incomes, which necessitated the construction of tenement buildings with cheap rental apartments. The communication system is developing and the mobility of the population is growing. There is a need to form new types of buildings (department stores, banks, high-rise offices, indoor sports facilities and markets, exhibition pavilions, industrial facilities). In the twentieth century, there was a certain devaluation of classical traditions, which led to a revision of the criterion of "beauty" in architecture. Accordingly, the compositions of spaces and volumes began to be built not from external symmetrical schemes of facades, but from the functionally expedient construction of internal spaces, which were reflected in the construction of the external volumes of the building.

The priority in the reassessment of the tectonic factor in modern architecture belongs to the French school and, first of all, to the outstanding scientist of the middle of the 19th century, architect and restorer of architectural monuments of medieval France, Viola Le Duc, his student, architectural historian Auguste Choisy and the latter’s student, Auguste Perret, a practicing architect of the 1910s and 1950s 20th century

In the architecture of the XX century. the following main directions and styles are distinguished:

functionalism;

Expressionism;

Organic architecture and regionalism;

Structuralism;

historicism;

Postmodernism;

• Symbolism;

  Deconstructivism.

Functionalism.

Auguste Perret wrote: “If a building truly fulfills its purpose, then its external forms should speak of its inherent functions. This is the character of the building. If you can give a building character at a minimal cost, the building will have style.” G. Mayer noted: “All things on earth are the product of multiplying a function by economy. All things, therefore, are not works of art. Any work of art is an essay and thus not expedient. Architecture is a biological process. Architecture is not a process of aesthetic order. The new residential building being created will not only be a “machine for living”, but a biological device to satisfy spiritual and physical needs.”

Functionalism emerged in the early 1920s. and embraced not only architecture, but also widely and everywhere spread to the entire objective world - furniture, clothing, book graphics, theatrical scenery and costumes, etc., laying the theoretical and practical basis for design.

New designs and materials.

O Perret actively used reinforced concrete. In 1903, he built the first entirely reinforced concrete house in Paris.

There is a search for the expressiveness of new structures (mesh metal structures of V. G. Shukhov in Russia). German architect M. Berg in 1911-1913 in Poland, he is building the Centenary Hall with open ribs of a reinforced concrete vault.

After the Second World War, new spatial reinforced concrete structures appeared that use curved lines (parabolas, hyperbolas, ellipses). The qualities of prestressed concrete make it possible to increase the spans of floors. This affects the construction of bridges. The combination of logical and artistic thinking is manifested in the projects of interchanges, multi-storey garages.

Bridges by Robert Mayer (1872-1940). Reinforced concrete structures acquire the qualities of aesthetic expressiveness. In 1908, experiments began with mushroom-shaped beamless ceilings (mushroom-shaped capitals of load-bearing columns). In 1933, the Schwandbach road bridge (Bern canton) with a sickle-shaped segment was built. From the very beginning of his activity around 1910 until the construction of his most recent bridges, Meyer developed the principles of the three-hinged arch, consisting of box sections. He gave this structure a flexibility that only steel bridges had previously enjoyed. In the pavilion of the Swiss company Portland Cement Company at the Swiss National Exhibition in 1939 in Zurich, Mayer demonstrated how picturesque and elegant reinforced concrete structures were. The master often made the first sketches of the bridges he conceived in the form of a single curved line drawn on a piece of paper during a trip from Zurich to Bern, where his office was located. Simple engineering calculations are not enough to pave the way for new solutions. This is an area where invention, in the full sense of the word, plays a more important role than calculation. Mayer's bridges respond to the aesthetic sense with their poetic expressiveness, a subtle sense of balance.

The patio, the inner courtyard, the intimate part of the house, was widespread in Mesopotamia by 200 BC. e. Roman country houses have a series of courtyards, each dedicated to a specific purpose. In 1949, José Luis Sert, in planning the workers' camps in Chembot (South America), reintroduced the patio.

Peter Behrens (1868-1940). He began his activity in Germany as an architect at the beginning of the 20th century. Behrens' workshop was the most famous in Germany. Mies van der Rohe, Gropius and even Le Corbuier (5 months) worked in it. He gained fame for his approach to industrial construction as a problem of architectural creativity. In 1907, the Werkbund (industrial union) was organized in Munich. His mission is to "make the craft more refined and improve the quality of the products." The artist, worker and industrialist had to cooperate in the production of things of artistic value.

Walter Gropius(1883-1969) began his career in Germany during the heyday of the Werkbund. After graduation, he worked in the workshop of Peter Behrens. This lasted from 1907 to 1910, when Behrens was designing a turbine plant for the General Electric Company (AEG) in Berlin. At the same time, Gropius participated in discussions in the newly organized Werkbund, which helped to crystallize his ideas about the nature of architecture.

After opening his own office, Gropius receives an order from the Fagust company for the project of a shoe last factory (1911). This factory was designed taking into account not the individual needs of a person, but the impersonal processes that take place in the building. After 1934 Gropius worked in England.

Post-war Germany and Bauhaus (1919-1928). Expressionism touched the work of almost every artist in Germany, but it could not have a healthy effect on architecture. Gropius was aware of the inconsistency of expressionism with the requirements of the era and the need to move away from it. When Gropius merged the School of Fine Arts and the Academy of Applied Arts in Weimar to form the Bauhaus, he tried to find teachers who had not previously worked in the field of applied arts. He entrusted the introductory course to the young artist Johann Itten. From the very beginning, the sculptor Gerhart Marx and the expressionist Lionel Feininger, who was interested in the problems of space, worked at the Bauhaus.

The second stage of development began in 1921, when the artist Paul Klee joined the Bauhaus group. After that, more and more people came from abstractionist groups: first Oskar Schlemmer in 1921, then in 1922 Wassily Kandinsky, and in 1923 Mogoly-Nagy (Hungarian). Mogoly-Nagy, publisher of books produced by the Bauhaus, helped to overcome the remnants of romantic mysticism.

The third stage of the Bauhaus is characterized by closer contact with industry. It came about at the time when this school moved from Wermar to Dessau (before 1928). Walter Gropius completes the Bauhaus building in Dessau in 1926

Bauhaus is the highest architectural and art-industrial school. The theoretical basis of Bauhaes was functionalism - "what looks good, what works well." The leaders of the Bauhaus sought to create a non-national democratic architecture.

In the 1920s achieved great success dutch amsterdam school headed by I.-P. Audi. He designed several workers' settlements and cheap houses.

CIAM-International congresses of contemporary architects - discuss the problems of modern architecture. The first congress took place in 1928 in La Sarrou.

Especially brightly functionalism manifested itself in Soviet architecture 1920-30s The problem of the formation of a new architecture for a new society in the 1920s. especially attracted architects of the young and middle generation, united in several creative associations. The attitudes of these associations differed, but the orientation towards a complete rejection of the traditional language of architectural forms was common.

Established in 1923, headed by N. Ladovsky and V. Krinsky, the Association of New Architects (ASNOVA), who called themselves rationalists, pursued mainly an aesthetic goal - the development of a fundamentally new syntax of architectural form, based on the psycho-physiological laws of perception of the main constituent elements of an architectural composition - volume, plane, rhythm, etc. In 1925, K. Melnikov, the author of the first six clubs in Moscow, joined ASNOVA.

In 1925, the Association of Modern Architects (OSA) arose, headed by A. and V. Vesnin and M. Ginsburg. OSA also set as its goal the formation of types of buildings that meet modern social conditions. However, the OCA approach to design was more pragmatic. In the layout of the building, they considered the fundamental functional and constructive organization of space as a source of its harmonization. This approach was formulated by the OCA masters as "a function of the constructed material shell and the space hidden behind it." This trend was called constructivism in the USSR.

In the first half of the 1920s. in the USSR, the concept of decent mass housing construction for workers is taking shape. The unimproved manor buildings of the working outskirts of large industrial cities were supposed to be replaced by a comfortable 2-4-storey complex building with sectional houses, schools, and shops. The community center of the complex was a working club. So since 1923, the Sokol settlement (architect N. Markovnikov), the complex at the AMO plant in Moscow (architect I. Zhiltovsky), residential complexes named after. Razin, them. Kirov, them. Artem, im. Shaumyan in Baku (architects A. Samoilov, A. Ivanitsky), in Kharkov, Leningrad, Tbilisi and other cities.

A few years later, these ideas were implemented in the practice of construction in Western countries, primarily in Germany (architects V. Gropius, E. May, B. Taut, G. Mayer).

The unification of the appearance and the geometrism of factory products were regarded by the masters of new architecture as an aesthetic means of harmonizing and ensuring the artistic unity of the khastroyka, replacing classical architectural forms. Le Corbusier wrote in 1923: "It is necessary to create a spirit of seriality - the desire to live in serial houses, to design houses as a series." A colossal influence on the formation of compositional techniques in the architecture of the Modern Movement was the five principles of building design published by Le Corbusier (villa in Garches, Villa Savoy in Poissy) in his book The Radiant City:

on open pillars that separate the building from ground dampness;

with a combined flat reinforced concrete roof-garden, providing residents of the house with additional recreational territory;

with a free layout of internal spaces, which is ensured by the replacement of internal load-bearing walls with a frame;

with ribbon windows that increase the illumination of the premises;

with a free composition of facades, which is ensured by replacing the load-bearing structure of the outer walls with a non-bearing one when switching to a frame structural system.

A paradoxical situation has arisen: denying in principle the normativity of classical architectural forms, in the actual practice of designing functionalism has come to a fairly monotonous prescription form. The deliberate limitation of expressive means could eventually lead the aesthetics of this school to depreciation. But its development was interrupted by totalitarian regimes that supported the traditional pathos of classical architecture. Functionalism gained a second wind after the Second World War, when it was necessary to quickly and economically rebuild the destroyed cities. In the 1940-1950s. functionalism is becoming more widespread than in the 1920s.

The architectural theme of the glass façade was realized by Le Corbusier in the early 1930s. in the buildings of the overnight shelter of the Salvation Army in Paris and in the building of the Tsentrosoyuz in Moscow. However, the idea of ​​a skyscraper with glass outer walls belongs to another major master of the modern movement - Mies van der Rohe. He developed it from 1919 in various projects, but realized it only a few decades later in the USA. First in a complex of two glass high-rise single-section residential buildings on Lake Shock Drive in Chicago, and then in the office of the Seagram Building in New York. In contrast to the functionalism of the 1920s, which formally cultivated a new constructive form, but practically imitated it, performing it from traditional materials, American functionalism of the 1950s. relied on a highly developed construction industry. The high quality of new materials and products used for these objects partly atoned for the elementary nature of their three-dimensional forms. The theme of a high-rise glass tower for an office or a hotel has been embraced by architects and clients around the world. Functionalism in the 1950s called "international style".

During the period of especially large-scale development of mass construction in the USSR in the 1950s-1970s. a situation developed that objectively contributed to the decline of the aesthetic properties of residential development. Unprecedented volumes of construction coincided with the period of the formation of the house-building industry, which required a minimum variety of industrial products. The free development of residential areas has destroyed the usual ideas about the urban environment, causing new settlers to feel nostalgic for the traditional urban space.

The aesthetic and ethical evaluation of functionalism has remained unstable over the past decades. During a period of particularly acute disappointment in modernism in the 1960s. built in 1927 according to the project of Le Corbusier, the Pussac residential complex was completely transformed by its residents during the reconstruction (flat roofs were replaced by pitched ones, ribbon windows were closed, the walls were painted and covered with decor). After 10-15 years in Germany, the residential complexes of V. Gropius and B Taut - Simmensstadt, Zehlendorf, Neuokeln in Berlin were lovingly and carefully restored.

Expressionism.

Expressionism in architecture is a branch of the general expressionist trend in art, which united literature (F. Kafka), music (A. Scriabin), cinema (R. Wiene), painting (V. Kandinsky, P. Klee). In architecture, the first striking manifestations of expressionism date back to 1919-1922. Then expressionist works appear with varying frequency in the 1950s and 1970s. (lower works by Le Corbusier, E. Saarinen, J. Utson, O. Niemeyer, G. Sharun).

Expressionism in architecture is characterized by an emphasized emotional expressiveness of the composition, often achieved through sharpness, grotesqueness, deliberate deformation or generalization of familiar forms. The standard of expressionism in the 1920s. was the building of the astrophysical laboratory "Einstein Tower" in Potsdam (1921), designed by E. Mendelssohn as a free building-sculpture in monolithic reinforced concrete with plastic, streamlined formani, almost excluding orthogonal conjugations.

In the 1950s with the prefix "neo" expressionism again enters the stage of world architecture. The most famous work of neo-expressionism is the chapel in Ronchamp (France), built according to the project of Le Corbusier in 1950-1955. Its composition is inspired by the images of the first prayer houses of Christianity.

G. Sharun, carrying out his work in Germany (the opera house in Berlin), found an expressionistic way even to solve such a normatively determined architectural form as an apartment building. In his residential complex in Stuttgart "Romeo and Juliet" (1956-1960), he created a non-trivial three-dimensional form of buildings. The building "Juliet" has a horseshoe-shaped plan and cascading height (5, 8 12 floors), and the one-section 20-storey building "Romeo" has a plan of a complex polygonal shape. Balconies and loggias of various oblique shapes give additional unexpected articulations to the volumes of buildings. G. Sharun created interesting individual interior spaces in modest-sized apartments, stimulating residents to be creative when arranging interiors.

Neo-expressionism, relying to a certain extent on the achievements of functionalism, introduced into it a humanizing emotional and individual principle, skillfully using the possibilities of modern structures and materials.

Organic architecture and regionalism.

Frank Lloyd Wright wrote: “Organic architecture is ... architecture in which integrity is the ideal ... in a philosophical sense, where the whole is related to the part as part is to the whole, and where the nature of materials, the nature of purpose, the nature of everything that is carried out becomes clear, speaking as a necessity. From this nature it follows what character, under given concrete conditions, a true artist can give to a building.

Aesthetic purism and the emotional limitations of functionalism stimulated the development of a number of directions that compensate for these shortcomings. One of them organic, the second is regional. The first is mainly associated with the name of an outstanding American architect F. L. Wright. Sharing the rational principles of functionalism, he considered the aesthetics of the spaces and volumes created to be just as essential. Its basis was the organic connection of the building with the surrounding landscape, and its equipment, furniture, utensils - with the composition of the internal environment of the building. For almost 70 years of creative life, F. L. Wright built many outstanding structures for various purposes: multi-storey offices, laboratories, museums, private houses. The principles of organic architecture dictated to Wright the use of traditional materials (stone, brick, wood) and the coincidence of textures of structures on the facade and in the interior (for example, unplastered masonry). The Guggenheim Museum in New York built according to his project was very widely known; Johnson's 15-story laboratory building in Racine; various mansions - “prairie houses”, “House over a waterfall”, etc. However, it is obvious that the full implementation of the ideas of organic architecture is achievable only when working with a wealthy customer. Wright divides the space of mansions, as a rule, into zones - common and intimate, and he designs the space of the common zone as “flowing” - without rigid partitions between the hall, the common room and the dining room.

The development of regionalism falls on the end of the 1930s, and its heyday - in the 1950s-1980s. First of all, it was formed in the countries of Northern Europe, and then began to actively develop in Latin America and Japan. In practice, the experience of designing national pavilions for numerous international and world exhibitions contributed to the identification (sometimes exaggerated) of regional features of architecture. This practice began to take shape in the second half of the 19th century. In the XX century. the Scandinavian countries are embarking on the path of consistent regionalism. They refuse functionalism, as many of its principles become unacceptable in a cold harsh climate. Here, roofs with pitched roofs reappear, warm cellars or undergrounds are arranged, curvilinear houses are built that repeat the slopes of mountain ranges, closed light apertures are designed, traditional materials are used (brick, stone, wood, including glued wood).

Regionalism in Japan is developing in three directions - imitation, illustrative traditionalism and the organic refraction of traditions. Imitation of a traditional wooden frame in reinforced concrete is used in the projects of religious buildings of various concessions, but it can also be found in the architecture of secular buildings - the Japan Pavilion at Expo-67 in Montreal (architect Yoshinobo Ashihara), the building of the National Theater in Tokyo (architect Hiroiki Iwamoto). Illustrative traditionalism is characterized by the method of introducing into the building, arranged in the forms of functionalism, individual details - "reminders" of traditional architectural forms. Such, for example, is the coronation of the building of international conferences in the city of Kyoto (architects Otani and Ochi), as the historical prototype of which the coronation of a temple of the 3rd century BC was chosen. n. e. in the city of Ise. The composition of the building of the Festival Hall in Tokyo (architect K. Maekawa, 1960) can be attributed to a truly organic direction in the perception and use of traditions. A massive roof with a large offset is used here. The complex forms of coatings echo the traditional architecture of the Olympic Sports Complex in YoYogi Park in Tokyo (architect K. Tange).

Structuralism.

In the history of architecture of the XX century. structuralism, based on the aestheticization of the constructive form, occupies an intermediate position between the constructivism of the 1920s and the high-tech of the 1980s. The classical functionalism of the 1920s did not allow the subordination of volumetric form to purely compositional requirements (function was always the determining factor). Structuralism relied on the expressive possibilities of new, but already well-studied constructions. It is based on the choice of design options when designing not only the best in terms of technical indicators, but with an expressive form-building potential. Structuralism manifested itself most clearly from the late 1940s to the 1960s. The most interesting works of structuralism are found in the work of P.-L. Nervi (Italy), R. Sarger (France), l. Kahn (USA). For the first two masters, the design was the initial in the shaping of the architectural image, for the third - the function.

Nervi and Sarger (the first by basic education is an engineer, the second is an architect) in their creative activity created the most interesting structures, arranged using large-span spatial coatings from thin-walled shells. Although such structures in construction began to be used from the 1920s, they received the greatest expressiveness not only as a constructive, but also as an architectural form in the work of these masters. Their activity is associated with the creation of images of modern sports, exhibition, trade, transport facilities, arranged on the basis of a harmonized spatial constructive form of a large-span coating. The most perfect in this series are such buildings as the Small Olympic Palace of Sports (Palazzetto della Sport) in Rome, the UNESCO conference halls in Paris and the exhibition pavilions in Turin in the work of Nervi and the covered markets in Nanterre and Royan in the work of Sarger. Even the widely replicated image of a spectacular and sports facility in the form of a lentil or a “flying saucer” (circus buildings in Sochi, Kazan and other cities), in which the lower shell is a bowl that carries the stands of spectator seats, and the upper one is a sloping dome of the cover, are repelled by creativity these masters.

The structuring of the form of a building, its volumes and spaces in the works of L. Kahn proceeds from the functional purpose of the latter and the illumination required in them. He groups the main and auxiliary premises into independent three-dimensional elements, believing that “architecture is a reasonable way of organizing space ... The structure of service premises should complement the structure of those served. Onda is rough, brutal, the other is openwork, full of light. Harmonizing the form and rhythm of alternation of volumes, L. Kahn found the initial structural basis for individual compositions of such complex objects for an architect as multi-storey buildings of scientific research institutes and laboratories. The peculiarity of L. Kahn's creativity, therefore, is harmonious structuring.

Historicism.

National romance in architecture. In the 1910s in the small and northern countries of Europe, appeal to national roots and cultural traditions has acquired particular importance. It was reflected in all types of buildings (city hall in Stockholm, architect R. Ostberg, 1911-1923). A. Shchusev (Russia), D. Scott (England), E. Nachig (Serbia), L. Sonk (Finland) work this way in temple architecture. These are buildings of cultural and social purpose Momchilov P. (Bulgaria), M. Nielsen (Iceland); office buildings by M. Paulson (Norway), V. A. Pokrovsky (Russia); California style villas in the USA.

A. Shchusev said: “Classical architecture is a language that at all times of the cultural periods of mankind was understandable to all peoples. It is the only architecture that has gained an international position.”

in Europe in the 1930s and 1940s. (and in the USSR until the mid-1950s) historicism became the basis for large ensembles. A distinctive feature of the use of ancient classical architectural forms during this period is their deliberate simplification and coarsening due to the erroneous idea that these measures contribute to the monumentalization of the image. The columns lose their intasis, their proportions become heavier, and the compositions as a whole acquire articulations of an exaggeratedly large scale. The extreme manifestations of such coarsened neoclassicism were the compositions of a number of government facilities erected in Italy and Germany under totalitarian regimes. This is how the triumphal structures (the triumphal arch in Genius and the Victory Monument in Balzano) by the architect M. Piacentini and the Olympic sports facilities in Rome (architect L. Moretti and E. del Debio) were solved. The building of the Palace of Civilizations (architect architect M. Piacentini) in the new public center of Rome - the EUR complex has become a kind of symbol of this trend in architecture. The composition of the Palace is a simplified composition of the Roman Colosseum.

In Germany of the “Third Reich”, such coarsened falsely monumental neoclassicism was embodied with the constructions of the Imperial National Socialist Congress Complex in Nuremberg, the Olympic Complex and the building of the new Imperial Chancellery (architect A. Speer) in Berlin.

In the USSR, historicism in the architecture of the first half of the 20th century. left a number of indisputably aesthetically significant structures based on a combination of classical compositional techniques with stylized elements of national architecture. The best example of such a composition is the Government House in Yerevan (architect A. Tamanyan). In neoclassicism, such examples are the building of the Council of Ministers in Kiev (architect I. Fomin and p. Abrosimov), the interiors of the Moscow metro stations Krasnye Vorota and Kurskaya Radialnaya (architects I. Fomin, L. Polyakov), the interiors of the Oktyabyskaya metro station "(architect L. Polyakov) and "Kurskaya-ring" (architect G. Zakharov).

If in Europe after the Second World War functionalism becomes more widespread, then in the USSR the architectural language of the Empire was perceived as the only worthy means of reflecting the triumph of victory in the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945. According to the laws of the Empire, the centers of cities destroyed during the war were restored (the ensemble of Moscow State University on the Lenin Hills in Moscow, architects L. Rudnev, E. Chernyshev, P. Ambrosimov, A. Khryakov, engineer V. Nasonov). The consistent development of historicism in the USSR was interrupted in a directive by the resolution of the Central Committee of the Central Committee of the Central Council of the USSR and the Council of Ministers of the USSR of November 4, 1954 “On the elimination of excesses in design and construction.” This circumstance returned domestic design practice to the pan-European channel of functionalism.

Departure from functionalism in Western countries in the late 1950s and early 1960s. determined by a number of social and economic reasons. But a purely emotional assessment of this was given by the American architect F. VK. Johnson. As a student and co-author of Mies van der Rohe in the design of the Seagram Building in New York - this symbol of "international style", Johnson in the late 1950s. breaks with him and writes: “Mies based his art on three things: economy, science, technology. Of course he was right. But this is what makes me bored. We are all bored."

Additional incentives for the development of historicism were such typical for the 1960-1970s. social phenomena, such as the development of the tourism industry and the practice of organizing international and world exhibitions (EXPO). The architectural composition of exhibition pavilions was usually based on the originality of national architectural forms. As a result, since the 1970s a new period in the development of historicism in architecture begins. This direction is diverse, but received the general name of postmodernism.

Postmodernism.

C. Jenke said: “Postmodernism is a populist-pluralistic art of direct communication”.

P. Weil and A. Geis note: “Postmodernism is the art of an era that has survived the collapse of all the big ideas of mankind. The artist no longer builds utopias, does not rebuild, but settles in the world, trying to settle in it with maximum comfort. For postmodernism, the law is not written, it lives by eclecticism, boldly kneading its art on fragments of other people's words and ideas. The culture of the past for him is a junk shop, from where he takes everything that comes into play, abundantly seasoning the resulting product with the author's words ... Any scene here is a quote, this, by the way, expresses the spirit of postmodernism, which has made quotation marks its main tool, and its main symbol.

Postmodernism is a broad social phenomenon that has spread in many areas of culture - philosophy. Literature, music, fine arts, architecture.

The ideological basis of postmodernism was a deep disappointment in the ideology of historical progress formulated by the French enlighteners of the 18th century. and based on the idea of ​​a rational reorganization of society and man. Philosophers of postmodernism (M. Foucault, J. Derrida) argue that what was promised by the enlighteners of the 18th century. the realization of a social utopia turned into nightmares of revolutions and totalitarianism because it oriented the individual and society towards an unshakable hierarchy of values, towards a certain spiritual center, a moral absolute. The philosophy of postmodernism proceeds from the premise that it is the orientation towards the absolute that constantly reproduces total structures and total consciousness. The only alternative to it can be pluralism. In this regard, postmodernism is generally interpreted as pluralism and orientation towards a fragment instead of the whole.

In architecture, postmodernism was formed by the end of the 1970s. and unites today different masters in terms of creative principles and style.

The postmodernists subjected to the greatest criticism such fundamental provisions of modernism as the functional zoning of cities, the asceticism of architectural forms, the rejection of the entire creative heritage, regionalism and the environmental approach to design.

In the field of architectural forms, postmodernism is characterized by a revival (often eclictic) of historical architectural systems and decor of all kinds (decorative masonry, tiling, painting, order compositions), an appeal to the expressive features of a wall mass with the failure of tape windows that destroy it, a revival of the active silhouette of the building completion (tongs , pediments, attics) in case of refusal of flat roofs. The principles of compositional construction are being revived - symmetry, proportionality. The development of blank walls is very diverse, on which textures, color, niches, etc. are combined.

One of the largest buildings of this style, the ATT skyscraper in New York (1978), designed by the ex-functionalist, and now the master of postmodernism, F.K. Johnson, became a program in the development of postmodernism.

The Plate Glass skyscraper in Ptsburgh (architects F. Johnson and K. Burgee) was designed as a complex of a 44-storey central volume surrounded by much more prismatic volumes (6-10 floors). All volumes are lined with bronze mirror glass and have expressive silhouettes of completions. The authors sought to fit the building into its surrounding context.

In the works of theorists and practitioners of postmodernism (R. Venturi, M. Culot, L. Krier, A. Rossi, A. Gryumbako), its main principles are formulated:

"imitation" of historical monuments and "models";

work in "styles" (historical and architectural);

"reverse archeology" - bringing the designed object in line with the old building tradition;

"everyday life of realism and antiquity", carried out by the well-known "belittling" or simplifying the applied classical architectural forms.

Seeing the viewer as an accomplice and an interested consumer (rather than an average city dweller) predetermined the playful, theatrical nature of postmodernism, and sometimes even pronounced features of kitsch and props.

In Europe, the ensemble of the Picasso Arena residential complex for 540 apartments in the Paris suburb of Marne-le-Vallee (1985), designed by M. Nunez, can be attributed to the most famous postmodern urban planning compositions. M. Nunez, a young Spanish worker, passionate about the theater, joined the Tallier de Arquitecture workshop and worked in it from the time of its inception. He did not receive a professional education, but over the years of work in the workshop he acquired the necessary skills in practice. Since 1978, he has broken away from the workshop and has been working independently. Competing with the Tallière de Arcitecture, he designed the Arena Picasso complex in the same suburb of Paris where the well-known workshop designed the Abraxas Palace complex. Both projects were carried out almost simultaneously.

The composition of the Picasso Arena complex is strictly symmetrical. In the center there are two 17-storey houses in the form of flat round disks (“alarm clocks” or “beehives”), supported on a flat base from extended 4-storey houses, as well as extended 7-10-storey houses, forming the side wings of the ensemble. The space of the complex is united by high (four floors) passages located along the axis of the complex and "alarm clocks". The architectural forms of the complex are extremely eclectic: they combine Gothic flying buttresses with classical elements, constructivist details and decorative sculpture inspired by Baroque images. The whole composition is dominated by the spirit of theatricality, shocking kitsch and deliberate non-functionality (especially in residential discs).

In accordance with the content of the order, the use of architectural heritage in postmodern works develops very differently: ironic caricature, fragmentary use of details, documentary accurate citation. An example of the latter is the building of the museum of the art collection of the multimillionaire P. Getty. The building was designed by R. Langdon and E. Wilson and is a recreation of the ancient "Villa of the Papyri" in the 1st century AD. n. e. during the eruption of Vesuvius Herculaneum.

Postmodern is customer-oriented. Hence its advantages and disadvantages.

High tech.

High-tech is an aesthetic trend in architecture that developed in the 1970s and is a modern modification of technism, which professes a radical renewal of the language of architecture under the influence of technological progress. To a certain extent, hi-tech is the last stage in the development of the aesthetic development of technical forms, begun by constructivism in the 1920s and continued by structuralism in the 1950s and 1960s.

High-tech is distinguished from the previous stages only by its inherent demonstrative super-technism, in which the functional use of building structures and engineering systems and equipment develops into a decorative and theatrical one with elements of exaggeration and irony, which is also inherent in other modern trends in art, primarily postmodernism. Unlike constructivism and structuralism, which operate mainly with reinforced concrete and glass, high-tech is focused on mastering the aesthetic potential of metal structures in combination with glass. In addition, high-tech actively includes elements of their engineering equipment in the composition of buildings and structures - air ducts, ventilation shafts, pipelines. Based on the purely technological practice of industrial enterprises to mark pipelines of various engineering systems with different colors, high-tech uses this technique in public buildings already as a compositional tool.

The ideological forerunner of high-tech is rightly considered the architect Y. Chernikhov. He left in his many architectural fantasies of the 1930s. compositions of buildings and structures, in the appearance of which rod steel structures are harmoniously combined with ascetic planes of enclosing and elements of engineering systems. The priority of J. Chenikhov is also reflected in the most extensive monograph on high-tech, by the American architectural historian D. Colin, translated into most European languages.

In practical terms, the forerunners of high-tech in the XIX century. considered the "Crystal Palace" by architect D. Paxton, and in the XX century. - the work of Mies van der Rohe. This outstanding architect, who began as a functionalist, became a principled anti-functionalist in his late period of creativity (50-60s). Proceeding from the position that the function is short-lived and strict adherence to it leads to obsolescence of capital buildings, he sought to form structures with a universal interior space, easily adaptable to changing functions. Mies van der Rohe used large-span frames (the building of the architectural department of the University of Illinois, 1955), columns and trusses (the project of the theater in Mannheim, 1953), columns and a steel structure of the roof (the building of the New National Gallery in Berlin) as remote support systems. , 1962-1968).

The priority of including brightly colored pipelines in the composition belongs to the architect E Saarinen (Technology Center of General Motors in Detroit). In hi-tech, combined frames of rigid and cable elements are used; there is a tendency to exaggerate the dimensions of the supporting structures.

High-tech naturally and purposefully captures in its orbit not only the appearance and interiors of the building, but also the environment - landscaping elements and decorative sculptures made of the same material as the facades. In front of the Congress-Halle building (architects R. Schuller and W. Schuller-Witte, 1973-1979), on a low pedestal, there is a sculpture – “a bunch of aluminum sausages”, ironically contrasting with its fluid forms with the emphasized geometrism of the building.

The most famous high-tech building was the building of the Center for the Arts. J. Pompidou on the Beaubourg plateau in Paris (architects M. Piano and R. Rogers). Based on the task of creating a free exposition space, the authors went the way of Mies van der Rohe, but brought it to the point of absurdity. In a building 50 m wide, each of the six ground floors is covered with steel trusses supported on external steel lattice supports. A span of 50 m for displaying books and paintings is clearly excessive, and the high height of the trusses corresponding to such a span leads to the fact that almost half of the volume of the building is occupied by inter-farm interfloor spaces. In this regard, it was necessary to build additional internal walls to organize the exposition. Engineering communications were placed on the facade here, an escalator located in a transparent plastic pipe was placed diagonally along the main facade.

More widely, but in moderate forms, high-tech principles are applied in the composition of the interiors of office buildings, hotels, department stores, multifunctional atrium-type buildings. The huge (to the entire height of the building) space of atriums is covered at the upper level by a translucent metal structure. This constructive system is complemented by silent elevators with transparent cabins, pipelines and air ducts.

In the 1980s The largest and most famous high-tech civil building was the high-rise office of the Hong Kong-Shanghai Banking Corporation, built in Hong Kong in 1986 according to the project of the Norman Foster Architectural Corporation. The structural system of the building is barrel-bridge (or barrel-grillage). Eight barrel supports are located at the ends of the building. Each support consists of four columns of tubular section, united by floor-by-story rigid lintels into a hollow spatial rod-trunk. The shafts are united by single-span trusses (38.4 m). In the direction perpendicular to the trusses, the trunk supports are united by a rigid grillage of diagonal braces (which is found on the facade).

Hi-tech coloring is based on a combination of achromatic shades with bright colors.

Hi-tech continues to develop, using modern technologies and materials.

Symbolism.

A symbol in art is an image with the maximum degree of generalization and expression, expressing an idea.

The development of various directions in the evolution of architecture of the 20th century is constantly accompanied, without mixing with them, by the creation of buildings and structures that carry symbolic functions - buildings-symbols or containing symbolic elements. Usually they are called upon (explicitly or veiledly) to symbolize some ideological, state, religious idea or other program that does not follow directly from the function of a building or structure.

The Sydney Opera House should be attributed to the symbolic buildings, and the advantage of its composition is the ambiguity of symbolism: some critics see in it the image of a sailing ship, others - talking nuns in starched caps. Until today, the most expressive of the symbolic buildings remains the terminal at the airport. J. Kennedy in New York. The terminal building was designed by E. Saarinen in 1958. It is made in monolithic reinforced concrete with a coating composed of four thin-walled shells of positive Gaussian curvature, creating a symbolic image of a bird taking off. E Saarinen managed to achieve an extraordinary harmony of the structure, finding the proper measure of generalization of the image within the boundaries between naturalism and the scheme.

Along with pictorial symbolism, proceeding with a greater or lesser degree of generalization from visually perceived images, speculative symbolism has also developed, which is called architecture “for angels and aviators”. It is characterized by the subordination of the planning decision of the building to a symbolic image, which under normal conditions is not visually perceived. An example of this is the building of the Catholic Cathedral of St. Mary in Tokyo (architect K. Tange, 1964). The rhombic volume of the Catholic Cathedral along the main mutually perpendicular axes is completed with longitudinal light lanterns, which makes it possible to observe these intersecting lanterns from a height at night, like a luminous Latin cross.

Deconstructivism.

Interest in modernism revived in the 1970s, and in the 1980s. he again enters the arena of world architecture under the name of neomodernism. While preserving the advantages of functionalism, neomodernism is freed from a number of shortcomings. This is no longer a white ascetic architecture, but an architecture that actively uses color. The works of neomodernism organically fit into the context of development.

Crucial for the formation of neomodernism was played by the beginning of the 1970s. the penetration to the West of information about the architecture of the Soviet avant-garde of the 1920s, which led to the 1980s. to a serious fascination with her images and ideas.

The branch of enomodernism, based not on direct borrowing of the ideas of the past, but on their certain transformation, was called deconstructivism (“decon”).

In general (with all the diversity of individual creative manners and creeds), based on the compositional principles of constructivism, the masters of "decon" resort to some deformation of constructivism techniques ("distortion of abstraction"), which give the composition dynamism and sharpness. As sources, different authors of deconstructivism choose different periods and different authors of the Russian avant-garde. For example, R. Koolhas and Z. Hadid in their work are focused on the late avant-garde and especially on the “anti-gravity architecture” of I. Leonidov (see his project of the Lenin Institute, 1927). R. Koolhaas included in the composition of his dance theater in The Hague (1984-1987) the volume of an overturned "golden" cone, in which he placed a restaurant, and Z. Hadid - a suspended volume with club premises in the competition project "Peak Club" for Hong Kong (1983 G.).

The worldview platform of the deconstructivists is the position of the modern French philosopher Jacques Derrida, who criticizes the metaphysical nature of all forms of modern European consciousness, which, in his opinion, consists in the principle of “being as presence”, which absolutizes the present. J. Derrida sees a way out of this metaphysicality in finding its historical origins through the analytical division (“deconstruction”) of the most diverse texts of humanitarian culture in order to identify in them basic concepts and layers of metaphors that capture the traces of subsequent eras. Although the main provisions of J. Derrida's worldview are based on his work with language and writing, he applies the provisions of his theory to the architecture of deconstructivism.

In this regard, his assessment of the project of the master plan for the Parc de la Villette in Paris by the architect Bernard Tschumi, who won the international competition, is interesting. In the project of B. Chumi, the park is saturated with a scattering of light, predominantly one-story pavilions - "foley" (metallic brightly colored structures based on a combination of images and techniques of Russian constructivism). J. Derrida writes that “the folies introduce a sense of shift or displacement into the overall composition, involving in this process everything that until now seemed to give meaning to architecture ... The folies deconstruct, first of all, the semantics of architecture. They destabilize the meaning, the meaning of the meaning. Won't this lead back to the desert of "anti-architecture", to the zero mark of the architectural language, in which it loses itself, its aesthetic aura, its basis, its hierarchical principles?... Undoubtedly not. The Foleys … approve, maintain, update and “rewrite” the architecture. Perhaps they revive the energy that was frozen, walled up, buried in a common grave of nostalgia ”(Jenks Ch. Deconstruction. The Pleasures of Absence. // Architectural Deconstructivism. - M., 1991, p. 14).

Thus, the bright works of deconstructivism are based on the aesthetics of isolating the individual details of the building. Sometimes the authors create the feeling of a preliminary analysis of the building into its component parts and a subsequent attempt to assemble a new structure from the component parts. In this case, the parts are “out of place” or “not fully assembled”. An imitation of a shell hitting a part of the building and its partial destruction is created. The Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao looks like a huge pile of mangled metal left in the center of the city.

New city models.

At the end of the XIX century. Ebenezer Howard the idea of ​​a garden city was put forward. Patrick Jeds considered the organism of the city from the point of view of a biologist in the book "Cities in Evolution" (1915, "Cities in Evolution"). He writes: “The plans of the proud are not bare schemes, but a system of hieroglyphs, through which a person has drawn the history of civilization ... Our task is to decipher the hieroglyphs and fill them with life.”

"Industrial city" Tony Garnier(1901-1904) - a model of the city, in which the author sought to comprehensively solve the problems of the city. Garnier calls reinforced concrete the main building material. In the "Industrial City" you can move around without using the transport streets. Garnier houses with terraces and roof gardens are a good combination of construction and old classical tradition. This layout was partly implemented in Lyon.

Le Corbusier in 1922 in Paris he presented the project "Modern city for 3 million inhabitants".

Z. Gidion describes the concept of "Spacetime" in city planning. The town planner studies the composition of various social strata of the population, their age groups, and the structure of families. There is a gradual departure from the concepts of a linear layout of streets and "axes", a transition to the criteria of population density. In Amsterdam, there are 110 to 550 inhabitants per hectare. A city planner should not create a rigid and complete system.

Parkway (parkway) Henry Goodson erected in 1934-1937. in NYC. Parkways do not have traffic intersections at the same level and are surrounded by greenery.

Around 1960, plate houses became common throughout the world. The walls of the RCA building rise as a solid mass to a height of 259 m.

Recently, the transition from planar city planning to volumetric planning has begun. Already Utzon emphasized the existence of links between horizontal "layers" under the ground and above the ground. Modern urban planning is building in layers or levels. “The individual building loses its importance compared to the collective overall form,” said Japanese architect Fumihiko Maki.

Otto Wagner(1841-1918) realized that the city's housing problem could not be solved by the garden city model. He was the first to indicate that the planning of the city should take into account the needs of various social strata of the population and create healthy conditions "for the average resident." These needs change over time.

At the CIAM congress in Athens in 1933, demands were put forward: “that each city should create a master plan for development and orders to ensure its implementation,” as Wagner had spoken 30 years earlier. As stated in " Charter of Athens» «Sun, greenery, space are the three main elements of urban development». The implementation of the principles of the "Athenian Charter" led to the regulation of landscaping of residential areas, the rejection of closed block development with courtyards-wells, the transition to open freely aerated development with good insolation of dwellings due to the predominantly meridional placement of buildings. This circumstance, in turn, determined the use of a predominantly line building system.

Imagine that you are traveling to another country. You can’t do without a cultural program and tourist routes, otherwise what’s the point of going somewhere at all. You can, of course, lock yourself up in a hotel for the duration of your vacation and have a great time, traditionally lying in bed ..

If you prepare in advance for the trip and study the traditions of the country you are going to, then a foreign culture will become much clearer. How about learning to distinguish between architectural styles and putting one more check in the list of your self-education? In addition, you will be able to impress girls, and it will be much more effective than, for example, the ability to distinguish beers with your eyes closed.

In general, architectural styles are a rather confusing and difficult topic for a beginner, and if you do not want to study boring literature, we offer you a simplified guide to world architecture (forgive us professional architects).

1. Classicism

Classicism is a stronghold of symmetry, rigor and straightness. If you see something similar, and even with round long columns, this is classicism.

2. Empire

Empire - this is when classicism decided to become pathetic to the point of impossibility, and even strives to be higher.

3. Stalinist Empire

Of course, the leader of all peoples, Comrade Stalin, lacked pathos and solemnity in the usual Empire style, and in order to show the power of the USSR in all its glory, this style was cubed. This is how the Stalinist Empire style appeared - an architectural style that frightens with its colossality.

4. Baroque

Baroque is when a building looks like a pie with whipped cream, often decorated with gold, stone sculptures and ornate stucco that clearly says its “fi!” classicism. This architectural style spread throughout Europe, including being adopted by Russian architects.

5. Rococo

If it seemed to you that the building was designed by a woman, and there are a lot of all sorts of ruffles and bows covered with gold on it - this is rococo.

6. Ultrabaroque

If you look at the building and from the abundance of stucco and sculptures you cease to understand what is happening around, you can be sure that this is ultra-baroque. The main thing is not to lose consciousness while contemplating such beauty.

7. Russian baroque

Russian baroque is no longer a cake, it is a real cake, painted in Khokhloma.

8. Pseudo-Russian style

Pseudo-Russian style is when he tried to “mow down” under antiquity, but he overdid it and decorated everything too richly.

9. Neo-Gothic

Neo-Gothic is when you are afraid of cutting yourself on a building just by looking at it. Thin long spiers, window openings and fear of injections.

10. Gothic

If you look at the building and there is less danger of cutting yourself, and in the center it has a round window or a stained-glass window with towers on the sides - this is Gothic. On the stucco molding of such buildings in the architectural style, they often like to torment all sorts of sinners and other antisocial personalities.

11. Art Deco

Art Deco is when looking at a building, old American songs by Frank Sinatra played in your head, and imaginary cars from the 60s began to drive through the streets.

12. Modernism

Everything is simple here. Modernism in architectural style is a house from the future, but built with notes of nostalgia for the past.

13. Modern

Art Nouveau in architecture can be used to study ancient history. There are a lot of little things and elaborate details, which together represent an integral composition.

14. Constructivism

Constructivism in architectural style is when lovers of cylinders and other strict geometric shapes begin to build houses. They put some kind of trapezoid or cylinder and cut windows in it.

15. Deconstructivism

If you look at a building and see that it has been completely, completely broken, bent and wrinkled, this is deconstructivism. A real geometric hell for a perfectionist.

16. Hi-tech

High-tech architecture includes buildings where there is a lot of glass, concrete, everything is transparent, mirrored and glitters in the sun. Maximum geometricity, rigor and angularity.

17. Postmodernism

Postmodernism is when you look at a building like Malevich's Black Square and don't understand what the author wanted to say, how he was allowed to build it, and why he wasn't treated for drug addiction. However, such bizarre forms also have their advantages.

Of course, professional architects may find such a top of architectural styles blasphemous and generally offended, but make allowances for those who are not so good at history and defining styles. After all, the automotive mechanic will smile indulgently as the architect tries to figure out which way to approach the crankshaft.

Architecture is the art of building, the ability to design and create cities, residential buildings, public and industrial buildings, squares and streets, gardens and parks. In many cities of our country you will find ancient kremlins and churches, palaces and mansions, modern buildings of theaters, libraries, youth palaces, in front of which you will want to stop and take a closer look at them.

You would also be standing in a museum in front of an interesting painting or sculpture. This is because buildings and streets, squares and parks, rooms and halls, with their beauty, can also excite the imagination and feelings of a person, like other works of art. Masterpieces of architecture are remembered as symbols of peoples and countries. The whole world knows the Kremlin and Red Square in Moscow, the Eiffel Tower in Paris, the ancient Acropolis in Athens. However, unlike other arts, people not only contemplate works of architecture, but also constantly use them. Architecture surrounds us and forms a spatial environment for the life and activities of people. Here are the houses where you live; schools, technical schools, institutes where you study; in theaters, circuses and cinema - have fun; in gardens, parks and yards - relax. Your parents work in factories and institutions; shops, canteens, stations, metro are constantly filled with visitors. It is hard to even imagine how you can do without these and many other structures.

The diversity of architecture depends not only on the creative imagination of the architect (the so-called architect in Rus'), but also on the conditions of construction: warm or cold climate, flat or mountainous terrain, the capabilities of construction equipment, wooden, stone or metal structures, the aesthetic tastes of residents and much more. . In construction, the labor of people of many professions is used - masons, designers, scientists and artists. All of them work under the guidance of an architect. (Architect in Greek means "master builder".) A person of this profession must have great technical and artistic knowledge. Admiring the Gothic cathedral, the Moscow Kremlin or the cycle track in Krylatskoe, we admire not only the peculiar beauty of these structures, but also the work and skill of the builders.

Even in ancient times, the tasks of architecture were determined by three qualities - usefulness, strength, beauty. Each building should be useful, meet its intended purpose. This is manifested both in its external appearance and in the character of its interior. A residential building, a theater and an educational institution are three different types of structures. Each of them has its own purpose, and each building should be convenient: in one case - for housing, in the other - for showing performances, in the third - for study. It is also important that each of them be durable, strong. After all, buildings are created not for one year, but for a long time. But architecture would not have become art if the third important requirement, beauty, had been ignored.

The well-known human desire for beauty inspires the creative imagination of the architect to search for ever new unusual architectural forms, the uniqueness of the appearance and the brightness of the artistic image of the building. So we see a variety of buildings, both among the ancient and among the modern. Take, for example, multi-storey residential buildings: one is high, like a tower, the other is in the form of a long straight plate, the third is bent in a circle. They have the same purpose and similar designs, they are designed for the same climate, they stand in the same city, but the architect's imagination for each of them has found its own form, its own color scheme. This is how structures arise with their own individual features, by which we recognize them. And each building makes its own impression: one has a solemn, festive look, the other is strict, the third is lyrical. Architectural monuments belonging to different eras and countries differ from each other in appearance or style, just as the living conditions and artistic tastes of people of those times differed. Look at the pictures and you will see for yourself.

A bright period in the history of Russian architecture is the middle of the 18th century. This is the time of rapid construction of palaces, large temples, the heyday of the Baroque style. V. V. Rastrelli (1700-1771) was the largest architect, who largely determined the style of buildings of that time. The facades of its buildings, painted in white, blue and gilding, are unusually elegant. The enfilades of halls, richly decorated with molding, and wooden mosaic floors of rare beauty are magnificent. The best buildings of V. V. Rastrelli are the Catherine Palace in Tsarskoye Selo (now the city of Pushkin), the Winter Palace and the Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg, the Grand Palace in Peterhof. On the island of Kizhi in Lake Onega, the wooden Church of the Transfiguration (1714), the bell tower (1874) and the Church of the Intercession (1764), built without a single nail, have been preserved. Eiffel Tower in Paris. It was designed in the middle of the 19th century. engineer Gustave Eiffel. Originality, bold design and architectural form made the tower famous.

Architectural styles in chronological order, starting from the time of the Ancient World, sorted out, wrote a few words about each, added examples, photos, videos, so that everything is easy to understand.

Styles in architecture and their features

Architectural styles are being formed features and properties of a historical period, region or country, which are manifested in the distinctive features of buildings and compositions, such as:

• purpose of buildings (temples, palaces, castles),
• structures and materials used in construction,
• composition techniques,
• lines and design of facades,
• plans,
• forms used.

Different styles arise in the specific conditions of the development of the economy and social structure. They are affected by:

• religious movements,
• statehood,
• ideological element,
• historical architecture and
• national differences,
• climate,
• landscape and relief.

Technical progress, ideological changes or geopolitical relations have always led and continue to lead to the birth of a new style.

Architectural styles of the archaic period

ancient egyptian style

This style gave rise to a huge variety of architectural structures and great monuments. , including on the Nile River, is evidence of the existence of one of the most outstanding civilizations in the world. The predominant building materials are sun-baked brick, limestone, sandstone and granite.

Architecture of Ancient Egypt: Pyramids of Giza

The understanding of the ancient Egyptian style by modern people is based on the surviving religious temples and massive, incomprehensible structures, with characteristic sloping walls that have a small number of holes, surrounded by mystery. It is widely believed that these are tombs, but there are other theories. Additional information about the architecture

Architectural styles of antiquity

Antiquity is Ancient Rome plus Ancient Greece.

ancient greek style

The Greeks built many temples for sacrifices to the gods. They laid the foundation for European architecture, which served as an example for the whole world. Their high-tech systems for proportion and style, using mathematics and geometry, created external harmony and beauty. Replacing wood with white marble and limestone back in the archaic era, the Greeks built noble and durable buildings. It can be divided into the following periods:

• archaic,
• classical,
• Hellenism.

ancient roman style

Ancient Roman architecture is a form of Etruscan architecture. This style is characterized by greatness, power and strength. The Greeks had a strong influence on it. It is distinguished by monumentality, a lot of decorations and magnificent decoration of buildings, strict symmetry.

The Romans built most buildings for practical purposes, not temples as in Greece. Read briefly. The history, applied materials, technologies and urban planning are described.

Byzantine style

The capital of the Roman Empire was transferred by the Roman emperor Constantine I to the city of Byzantium (Constantinople) in 330 and became known as New Rome. Naturally, in the architecture of Byzantium, one can see a strong influence of the ancient Roman style. At the same time, in terms of elegance and luxury, she sought to surpass the old Rome.

Byzantine style is a fusion Christian and ancient worldview with elements of the artistic culture of the East.
The empire expanded its territories at the expense of the former provinces of Rome in the west, where it erected monuments, palaces, temples, churches in order to show luxury and establish the status of the new imperial power.

• Buildings have become geometrically more complex.
• In addition to stone, brick and plaster were used to decorate the buildings.
• There is a looser attitude towards classical elements; carved decorations were replaced by mosaics.
• The simplicity and restraint of the exterior of the temples contrasted sharply with the magnificent precious mosaics, sparkling with gold, inside the premises.

Pre-Romanesque architectural styles

Pre-Romanesque or Pre-Romanesque architecture spans the times

• Merovingian kingdom (5th - 8th centuries),
• the era of the Carolingians (8 - 9 centuries) and
• Ottonian period (10th century) until the beginning of the 11th century, when the Romanesque style was born.

The main theme during this period is classical Mediterranean and early Christian forms in interaction with Germanic ones. They contributed to the emergence of new innovative designs. This, in turn, gave rise to the Romanesque architectural style.

Merovingian style

The period of distribution of this style falls on the period from the 5th to the 8th centuries, when the Frankish royal Merovingian dynasty ruled on the lands belonging to modern France, Belgium and partly Germany. This is the time of the baptism of the barbarians. Combines the traditions of the late antique Roman style and barbarian traditions.

Carolingian style in architecture

The Merovingian era was replaced by the Carolingian era (780-900). The Carolingian Renaissance in the late 8th and 9th centuries is a style of pre-Romanesque architecture in northern Europe.

After becoming emperor, the German king Charlemagne wanted his empire to be as great as Rome before him. He sponsored art and financed building projects, mainly cathedrals and monasteries. Many of these buildings also served as schools as Charlemagne sought to create a large literate base for his empire.

Trying to consciously imitate Roman architecture, the Carolingian style borrowed many elements from early Christian and Byzantine architecture.

Ottonian style

The Ottonian period follows the Carolingian period and precedes the emergence of Romanesque architecture. Surviving examples of this style are found in Germany and Belgium. The Ottonian Renaissance (951-1024) originated in Germany during the reign of Otto the Great and drew inspiration from the Carolingian and Byzantine eras.

Respect for the mathematical sciences is expressed in the balance and harmony of the building elements. Most Ottonian churches make generous use of the round arch and have flat ceilings. The exterior of most basilicas resembles the Carolingian style, while the interior is early Christian.

Roman style

Romanesque buildings were built in Europe from about 1000 until the arrival of the Gothic style in the 12th century.

This style contains many of the main features of Roman and Byzantine architecture.

It personifies the construction of fortified castle cities with powerful walls, narrow windows and defensive moats around the fortifications, where bridges and city gates were guarded by guards, streets were blocked with chains at night.

The castle was usually built on a hill, which was of strategic importance for defense and observation. Towers - shelters served as decoration of the composition. Their shape could be round, four- or hexagonal with a pointed roof. The rest of the buildings of unpretentious geometric shape were located around it.

The most striking Romanesque style can be observed in temples connected to such towers, having semicircular doorways and windows. Galleries and outer walls of churches were decorated with decorative pillars connected by small arches.

Buildings in the Romanesque style look solid, durable and harmonious against the background of the surrounding nature.

Gothic style

Based on the Romanesque style, it arose with soaring spiers, pointed arches and carvings on religious themes. This style originated in northern France in the 12th century. It has become widespread in Austrian, German, Czech, Spanish, English cities.

In Italy, he took root with great difficulty and strong changes that marked the beginning of the "Italian Gothic". At the end of the 14th century, this architectural style was transformed into the so-called "International Gothic".

For those interested in more detail in the article. The article describes the 6 most striking examples of Gothic in Europe. An example of radiant Gothic is given in the article about.

Architectural style Renaissance or Revival

The revival began in Italy and spread throughout Europe. The humanistic orientation of the period 1425-1660 was characterized by attention to human activity, and a revival of interest in antiquity.

In architectural buildings this is reflected in the arrangement of columns, pilasters and lintels. Asymmetrical medieval features are replaced by semi-oval arches, hemispherical domes and niches (edicules). Ancient forms are returning to architecture again.

In the Renaissance there is a fusion of Gothic and Romanesque styles.
After the crisis of ideas in the 16th century, the Renaissance was replaced by Mannerism and Baroque.

Mannerism

The style replaced the late Renaissance with unstable moral, social and religious phenomena. In architecture, he expressed himself through the violation of the Renaissance balance, elements of the grotesque, the use of conceptual solutions that can cause a feeling of anxiety.

Some art historians call it early baroque. Origins: Florence, Rome and Mantua in Italy (it. maniera- manner). But most importantly, he became reflection of transformation medieval art in modern times.

Baroque

Architectural styles of classicism

At the end of an era Renaissance Palladio and Scamozzi (Italian architects) expressed in architectural language direction of classicism. The basis of the classical style: rationalism and the use of only functional details.

Thanks to following strict canons, the buildings are different

• correct planning,
• clear forms,
• symmetrical compositions and
• restrained decoration.

The aestheticism of classicism was supported by large-scale urban development projects, which resulted in the streamlining of urban developments.

In different countries, this trend manifests itself with some peculiarities. Italy, France, England, Germany, USA expressed the classics as:

• Palladianism or early classicism,
• Georgian architecture,
• Empire,
• Regency,
• Biedermeier,
• federal architecture.

Historicist styles in architecture

This direction gravitates toward the conscious recreation of the forms and content of the historical styles of architecture of the past. It can simultaneously combine several old trends and introduce new elements. This is, in a way, a smooth dissociation from classicism, time.

It is attributed

• subjective interpretations of Neo-Gothic and Neo-Renaissance with elements new to them,
• combinations with neo-Moorish or Byzantine styles,
• variations on the theme of baroque - neo-baroque
• and the theme of the Greek style - Neo-Greek.

Historicism in Russia took shape in the "pseudo-Russian style".

A harmonious combination of forms of past styles is typical for clean. It is inherent in late historicism to focus on the baroque period in the revival - neo-baroque.

Modern architecture, using this style in our time, has created another look, which is called Neo-historicism.

Architectural styles of Art Nouveau

Although British art historians unambiguously define it as the Victorian style, its birth heralded the beginning of the Art Nouveau era. And that was in 1861.

Art Nouveau (Art Nouveau)

This architectural style developed from the end of the 19th century to the mid-20s of the 20th century. The founder of Art Nouveau is the Englishman William Morris (1830-1896), the famous leader of Arts and Craft, and Pre-Raphaelite artists.

Despite the different names, "liberty", "art nouveau", "tiffany", "metro" and others, it is easily recognizable, because. draws its inspiration from nature. Its main characteristic is ornaments filled with stylized motifs of plants and flowers, birds, insects, fish.

Art Deco (Art Deco)

It's dynamic and bold continuation of Art Nouveau. He does not reject neoclassicism, but welcomes modern technology and aerodynamic elements. Transforms the smooth lines of Art Nouveau into geometry, angular ornaments and ethnographic patterns. Prefers expensive materials, such as rare woods, ivory, aluminum and silver.

Luxury is limited by strict regularity and the absence of bright colors in the design. The main focus is the beauty of the material. Art Deco gained international recognition in the 1930s and 1940s.

Modern Rational

In 1930-1937. Art Deco gently flows into Rational Modern. This style emphasizes curved, horizontally elongated forms and elements of ship architecture. Industrial designers stripped Art Deco of ornamentation in favor of clean lines, sharp corners were replaced by aerodynamic curves, and exotic woods and stone were replaced by cement and glass.

Architectural styles of modernism

The global movement in architecture and design of the 20th century, which united the emerging architectural styles based on innovations in building technology, new materials, reinforced concrete, steel and glass, was called international style.

Character traits:

• decisive renewal of forms and designs,
• analytical approach to the function of buildings,
• strictly rational use of materials,
• openness to structural innovations.

He rejects ornamentation, the neoclassical approach to architecture, and the Beaux-Arts (beaux-art), which means "beautiful architecture", and prefers minimalism. Essential elements:

• asymmetrical compositions,
• cubic or cylindrical shapes,
• flat roofs,
• use of steel and reinforced concrete,
• big windows.

In different countries, their features acquired their own sound. But everyone has the same principles:

• desire to save
• wide use of new materials,
• create free plans of simple geometric shapes using the framework modular structure.

There are no national cultural signs in the buildings, there is no decor, but there are surfaces made of glass and metal.

International style covers modern trends in architecture such as:

• brutalism,
• constructivism,
• functionalism,
• Rationalism,
• De Stijl (neoplasty),
• Bauhaus and others.

The architectural styles of this direction are discussed in more detail in the article.

Architectural styles of postmodernism

An association architectural trends that emerged in the 60s of the last century as a reaction to austerity, formalism and lack of diversity, is postmodernism. Its heyday came in the 1980s.

The recurrence of various principles contained mainly in the classical architecture of the past and their application to modern structures has given rise to the architecture of historical allusion (a stylistic device that alludes to something well-known).

The search for uniqueness, the creation of new forms, the idea of ​​harmonizing architecture in accordance with the environment are distinctive features in the work of postmodernists. They are characterized by bright colors, classical motifs, a variety of structures, materials and shapes.

The desire to maintain proportions and symmetry, to express the imagery of buildings, the introduction or revival of decor (bas-reliefs, murals) are actively used in exterior decoration.

Since the late 1990s, it has been splitting into new trends of high-tech architecture, neoclassicism and deconstructivism.

Hi-tech in architecture

High Tec - high technology. It arose in the 1970s on the basis of high-tech elements in industry and engineering.
The concept of High Tech developed from British modernist architecture in the late 1960s. Prefers lightweight materials and clean, smooth, impenetrable surfaces, often glass. Characterized by pronounced open steel structures, exposed pipes, ducts, etc., flexibility to create indoor areas and interiors.

These changes were introduced and implemented by the style's key architects Norman Foster and Richard Rogers from the 1970s.

Deconstructivism

These strange, distorted, almost impossible buildings are actually part of a very specific, non-straightforward approach to design.
Deconstructivism is characterized

• using fragmentation,
• manipulation of surface structure ideas,
• redefining its forms and
• a radical manifestation of their complexity in the building.

By focusing on freedom of form rather than functional issues, deconstructivists aim to impress the visitor by making their stay in their space memorable: the interior is just as captivating as the exterior.

This fragmented style is believed to have developed out of postmodernism that began in the late 1980s. While postmodernism was returning to historical roots that modernism had shunned, deconstructivism rejected postmodern acceptance of such references and took a bold step towards extraordinary innovation in architecture.

Green, organic architecture

Green building seeks to minimize the negative impact of construction on nature. This current strives for a moderate and efficient use of materials, energy and space in order to organically develop the ecological system as a whole.
A key factor in green architecture: the use of environmentally friendly technologies and resources at every stage of construction, from idea and planning, ending with destruction.

But no less (or maybe more) organic is the architecture of another great architect. He was inspired by the forms observed in nature and transferred them to his creations. is a prime example of this.

Now you know the architectural styles in chronological order. What is missing from this list?

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