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tragic

One of the traditionally (at least in the 19th-20th centuries) categories related to aesthetics is tragic. Tragic as an aesthetic category refers only to art, unlike other aesthetic categories - the beautiful, the sublime, the comic, which have their own subject matter both in art and in life.

The tragic in life has nothing to do with aesthetics, because when contemplating it, and even more so when participating in a tragic collision, normal people do not experience an aesthetic event, no one receives aesthetic pleasure, no aesthetic catharsis occurs. In particular, the tragedy of the inhabitants of the barbarously destroyed Guernica has nothing to do with aesthetics, and Picasso's painting "Guernica" carries a powerful charge of the tragic in the field of aesthetic perception.

The aesthetic experience that interests us here, which in modern times has received the name of "tragic", was realized in the most complete and concentrated form in ancient Greek tragedy- one of the highest forms of art in general, and at the same time the first attempts were made to comprehend and theoretically consolidate it.

The essence of the tragic aesthetic phenomenon lies in image unexpected suffering and death of the hero, which happened not because of an accident, but as an inevitable consequence of his (as a rule, initially unconscious) misdeeds or guilt. The hero of the tragedy, as a rule, makes attempts to fight the fatal inevitability, rebels against Fate and dies or suffers torment and suffering, demonstrating by this an act or state of his inner freedom in relation to the forces and capabilities of the elements that outwardly exceed him. The Aristotelian definition of tragedy is extremely concise and capacious in meaning: "So, tragedy is an imitation of an important and finished action, having a certain volume,<подражание>with the help of speech, in each of its parts differently decorated; by means of action, not story, which, by means of compassion and fear, purifies (catharsis) such affects"This is the tragic catharsis, characteristic only for this type of dramatic art.

F. Schiller in the article "On Tragic Art" explains the conditions under which "tragic emotions", a sense of the tragic, can arise. “Firstly, the object of our compassion must be related to us in the full sense of the word, and the action that is to evoke sympathy must be moral, i.e. free. Secondly, suffering, its sources and degrees, must be fully communicated to us in the form of a series of interconnected events, i.e., thirdly, it is sensually reproduced, not described in the narrative, but directly presented to us in the form of action. All these conditions art unites and realizes in tragedy.

F. Schelling in his "Philosophy of Art" explores tragedy in a special section, based on the ideas of Aristotle and using the tragedy of the ancient classics as a model. For him, the tragic manifests itself in the struggle between freedom and necessity. At the moment of resolution of the tragic situation, "at the moment of its higher suffering he (tragic hero ) passes to the highest liberation and to the highest passionlessness. "The spectator reaches the state of catharsis, about which Aristotle wrote.

Hegel sees the essence of tragedy in the moral sphere, in the conflict between moral force, interpreted by him as "divine in his worldly reality" as substantial, governing human actions, and the "acting characters" themselves. In particular, in tragedy, a person is not afraid of an external overwhelming power, “but a moral force, which is the definition of his own free mind and at the same time something eternal and indestructible, so that, turning against it, a person restores it against himself.”

In the twentieth century the tragic for the most part goes beyond the real aesthetic experience, merges with the tragedy of life, i.e. becomes simply a statement in the works of art of the tragedy of life, as if repeating it, not conducive to restoration harmony a person with the Universe, to which the whole sphere of aesthetic experience, aesthetic activity, art in its artistic and aesthetic sense is oriented. Modern non-classical aesthetics, having advanced almost to the level of categories such concepts as absurdity, chaos, cruelty, sadism, violence and the like, practically does not know either the category or the phenomenon tragic.

Comic - this is a category of classical aesthetics, although it is traditionally paired with the category of the tragic, in principle it is neither its antipode nor any modification. They are related only by the fact that historically they originate from two ancient genres of dramatic art: tragedy and comedy.

The phenomenon of the comic is one of the oldest in the history of culture. It involves the excitation of the laughter reaction of a person, laughter however, it is not limited to him alone. At the same time, we are talking about a special laughter caused by an intellectual and semantic game. Jokes, witticisms, ridicule of human shortcomings, absurd situations, harmless deceptions have accompanied a person's life since ancient times, easing its hardships and hardships, helping to relieve mental stress. And in the case when the funny gave the laughing pleasure, joy, we can talk about the aesthetic phenomenon of the comic.

Already the Homeric epic is permeated with elements of the comic. At the same time, first of all, the life of the gods, the inhabitants of Olympus, is described with humor. Moreover, Homer presents her as permeated with comedy, humor, cunning, harmless tricks, "Homeric" laughter. The ideal life (the life of the celestials) according to Homer is a life of fun, fueled by endless jokes, intrigues and divine pranks. Unlike her, the life of people (the heroes of his epic poems) is fraught with difficulties, dangers, death, and here, as a rule, there is no time for jokes and humor.

One of the followers of Aristotle, who lived in the 1st century. BC. a, defines comedy by analogy with the Aristotelian definition of tragedy, i.e. and connects it with catharsis:“Comedy is the imitation of a funny and insignificant action, having a certain volume, with the help of decorated speech, and various types of decorations are especially given in different parts of the play; imitation through characters, not a story; through pleasure and laughter, which purifies such passions. Her mother is laughter." Cleansing with laughter, removing mental, emotional, intellectual, moral tensions in aesthetic catharsis is indeed one of the essential functions of the comic, and antiquity clearly grasped this function.

Christianity as a whole had a negative attitude towards the comic genres of art and with caution towards laughter and the ridiculous in everyday life. However, the comic remains, develops, and often flourishes exclusively in the grassroots non-professional folk culture.

Only in the Age of Enlightenment did art theorists and philosophers regain an interest in the comic genres of art, in funny and laughter, as effective methods of influencing people's shortcomings, their stupidity and countless mistakes, immoral deeds, false judgments, etc. The greatest comedian of the 17th century. Molière was convinced that the task of comedy was to "correct people by amusing them."

Kant deduces, without consciously striving for it, one of the essential principles of the comic - unexpected discharge of the artificially created tension of expectation (something significant) into nothing through a special gaming reception.

N. Chernyshevsky, reinterpreting Hegel, saw the essence of the comic in the inner emptiness and insignificance, hiding behind appearance, which has a claim to richness and significance. Russian literature of the 19th century. gave him rich food for such a conclusion. Especially the work of Gogol. What are the characters of The Inspector General worth, with the utmost completeness confirming this position of Chernyshevsky.

Thus, it can be stated that the category comic in aesthetics is a specific sphere of aesthetic experience, in which, on an intellectual-playing basis, a benevolent denial, exposure, condemnation of a certain fragment of everyday reality (character, behavior, claims, actions, etc.) is carried out, which claims to be something higher, significant, ideal than it allows its nature, from the standpoint of this ideal (moral, aesthetic, religious, social, etc.).

From this it is clear that the comic is most fully realized in those types and genres of art where a more or less isomorphic pictorial and descriptive presentation of everyday life is possible. It is in literature, dramaturgy, theater, realistic fine arts (especially in graphics), in cinema. Architecture is by nature alien to the comic. There are comic forms in music, but they tend to be closely correlated with the corresponding comic verbal texts.

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CONTENT
Introduction……………………………………………………………………………..3
1. Tragedy - irreparable loss and affirmation of immortality………………..4
2. General philosophical aspects of the tragic……………….……………………...5
3. Tragic in art…………………………………………………………….7
4. Tragic in life………………………………………………………………..12
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………….16
References……………………………………………………………………18
INTRODUCTION
Aesthetically evaluating phenomena, a person determines the measure of his dominance over the world. This measure depends on the level and nature of the development of society, its production. The latter reveals one or another meaning for a person of the natural properties of objects, determines their aesthetic properties. This explains that the aesthetic manifests itself in different forms: beautiful, ugly, sublime, base, tragic, comic, etc.
The expansion of human social practice entails an expansion of the range of aesthetic properties and aesthetically evaluated phenomena.
There is no era in the history of mankind that would not be full of tragic events. Man is mortal, and every person living a conscious life cannot, in one way or another, comprehend his attitude to death and immortality. Finally, great art in its philosophical reflections on the world always inwardly gravitates toward the tragic theme. Through the entire history of world art passes as one of the general theme of the tragic. In other words, the history of society, and the history of art, and the life of the individual, in one way or another, come into contact with the problem of the tragic. All this determines its importance for aesthetics.
1. TRAGEDY - IRREVERSIBLE LOSS AND STATEMENT OF IMMORTALITY
The 20th century is the century of the greatest social upheavals, crises, turbulent changes, creating the most difficult, most tense situations in one or another point on the globe. Therefore, the theoretical analysis of the problem of the tragic for us is introspection and understanding of the world in which we live.
In the art of different peoples, tragic death turns into resurrection, and sorrow turns into joy. For example, ancient Indian aesthetics expressed this pattern through the concept of "samsara", which means the cycle of life and death, the reincarnation of a deceased person into another living being, depending on the nature of the life he lived. The reincarnation of souls among the ancient Indians was associated with the idea of ​​aesthetic improvement, the ascent to more beautiful. In the Vedas, the oldest monument of Indian literature, the beauty of the afterlife and the joy of going into it were affirmed.
Since ancient times, human consciousness could not come to terms with non-existence. As soon as people began to think about death, they affirmed immortality, and in non-existence, people set aside a place for evil and accompanied it there with laughter.
Paradoxically, it is not tragedy that speaks of death, but satire. Satire proves the mortality of living and even triumphant evil. And tragedy affirms immortality, reveals the good and beautiful principles in a person who triumph, win, despite the death of the hero.
Tragedy is a mournful song about an irreparable loss, a joyful hymn to the immortality of man. It is this deep nature of the tragic that manifests itself when the feeling of sorrow is resolved by joy (“I am happy”), death by immortality.
2. GENERAL PHILOSOPHICAL ASPECTS OF THE TRAGIC
The person leaves life irrevocably. Death is the transformation of the living into the inanimate. However, the dead remains alive: culture preserves everything that has passed, it is the extra-genetic memory of mankind. G. Heine said that under each tombstone is the history of the whole world, which cannot leave without a trace.
Comprehending the death of a unique individuality as an irreparable collapse of the whole world, tragedy at the same time affirms the strength, the infinity of the universe, despite the departure of a finite being from it. And in this very finite being, tragedy finds immortal traits that make the personality related to the universe, the finite to the infinite. Tragedy is a philosophical art that poses and solves the highest metaphysical problems of life and death, realizing the meaning of being, analyzing the global problems of its stability, eternity, infinity, despite the constant variability.
In tragedy, as Hegel believed, death is not only annihilation. It also means the preservation in a transfigured form of that which in this form must perish. Hegel contrasts the being suppressed by the instinct of self-preservation with the idea of ​​liberation from the "slave consciousness", the ability to sacrifice one's life for the sake of higher goals. The ability to comprehend the idea of ​​infinite development for Hegel is the most important characteristic of human consciousness.
K. Marx already in his early works criticizes the idea of ​​Plutarch's individual immortality, putting forward the idea of ​​human social immortality as opposed to it. For Marx, people who are afraid that after their death the fruits of their deeds will go not to them, but to humanity, are untenable. The products of human activity are the best continuation of human life, while hopes for individual immortality are illusory.
In understanding the tragic situations in the world artistic culture, two extreme positions have emerged: existentialist and Buddhist.
Existentialism made death the central problem of philosophy and art. The German philosopher K. Jaspers emphasizes that knowledge about a person is tragic knowledge. In the book “On the Tragic”, he notes that the tragic begins where a person takes all his possibilities to the extreme, knowing that he will perish. It is like the self-fulfillment of the individual at the cost of his own life. “Therefore, in tragic knowledge, it is essential what a person suffers from and because of what he perishes, what he takes upon himself, in the face of what reality and in what form he betrays his being.” Jaspers proceeds from the fact that the tragic hero in himself carries both his happiness and his death.
The tragic hero is the bearer of something beyond the scope of individual existence, the bearer of power, principle, character, demon. Tragedy shows a person in his greatness, free from good and evil, writes Jaspers, substantiating this position by referring to Plato's idea that neither good nor evil arise from a petty character, and a great nature is capable of both great evil and great good.
Tragism exists where forces collide, each of which believes itself to be true. On this basis, Jaspers believes that truth is not one, that it is split, and tragedy reveals this.
Thus, existentialists absolutize the self-worth of the individual and emphasize its exclusion from society, which leads their concept to a paradox: the death of the individual ceases to be a social problem. A person left alone with the universe, not feeling humanity around him, embraces the horror of the inevitable finiteness of being. She is cut off from people and in fact turns out to be absurd, and her life is devoid of meaning and value.
For Buddhism, a person, dying, turns into another being, he equates death to life (a person, dying, continues to live, therefore death does not change anything). In both cases, virtually every tragedy is removed.
The death of a person acquires a tragic sound only where a person, having self-worth, lives in the name of people, their interests become the content of his life. In this case, on the one hand, there is a unique individual identity and value of the individual, and on the other hand, the dying hero finds continuation in the life of society. Therefore, the death of such a hero is tragic and gives rise to a feeling of irretrievable loss of human individuality (and hence grief), and at the same time, the idea of ​​continuing the life of the individual in humanity (and hence the motive of joy) arises.
The source of the tragic is specific social contradictions - collisions between a socially necessary, urgent requirement and the temporary practical impossibility of its implementation. The inevitable lack of knowledge, ignorance often become the source of the greatest tragedies. The tragic is the sphere of comprehension of world-historical contradictions, the search for a way out for humanity. This category reflects not just the misfortune of a person caused by private malfunctions, but the disasters of mankind, some fundamental imperfections of being that affect the fate of the individual.
3. TRAGIC IN ART
Each era brings its own features to the tragic and emphasizes certain aspects of its nature.
Thus, for example, Greek tragedy is characterized by an open course of action. The Greeks managed to keep their tragedies entertaining, although both the actors and the audience were often informed about the will of the gods or the choir predicted the further course of events. The audience was well aware of the plots of ancient myths, on the basis of which tragedies were mainly created. The amusement of Greek tragedy was firmly based on the logic of action. The meaning of the tragedy was in the nature of the behavior of the hero. The death and misfortunes of the tragic hero are known for sure. And this is the naivete, freshness and beauty of ancient Greek art. Such a course of action played a great artistic role, intensifying the tragic emotion of the viewer.
The hero of ancient tragedy is not able to prevent the inevitable, but he fights, acts, and only through his freedom, through his actions, what must happen is realized. Such, for example, is Oedipus in Sophocles' tragedy Oedipus the King. By his own will, consciously and freely, he searches for the causes of the misfortunes that have fallen on the heads of the inhabitants of Thebes. And when it turns out that the “investigation” threatens to turn against the main “investigator” and that the culprit of the misfortune of Thebes is Oedipus himself, who killed his father by the will of fate and married his mother, he does not stop the “investigation”, but brings it to the end. Such is Antigone, the heroine of another tragedy by Sophocles. Unlike her sister Ismene, Antigone does not obey the order of Creon, who, under pain of death, forbids the burial of her brother, who fought against Thebes. The law of tribal relations, expressed in the need to bury the body of a brother, no matter what the cost, acts equally in relation to both sisters, but Antigone becomes a tragic hero because she fulfills this necessity in her free actions.
Greek tragedy is heroic.
The goal of ancient tragedy is catharsis. The feelings depicted in the tragedy purify the viewer's feelings.
In the Middle Ages, the tragic appears not as heroic, but as martyrdom. Its purpose is comfort. In the medieval theater, the passive principle was emphasized in the actor's interpretation of the image of Christ. Sometimes the actor “got used” to the image of the crucified so much that he himself was not far from death.
Medieval tragedy is alien to the concept catharsis . This is not a tragedy of purification, but a tragedy of consolation. It is characterized by logic: you feel bad, but they (the heroes, or rather, the martyrs of the tragedy) are better than you, and they are worse off than you, so take comfort in your sufferings by the fact that there are worse sufferings, and torments are harder for people, even less, than you deserve it. The consolation of the earth (you are not the only one who suffers) is enhanced by the consolation of the other world (there you will not suffer, and you will be rewarded according to your deserts).
If in ancient tragedy the most unusual things happen quite naturally, then in medieval tragedy an important place is occupied by the supernatural nature of what is happening.
At the turn of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, the majestic figure of Dante rises. Dante has no doubts about the need for eternal torment by Francesca and Paolo, who with their love violated the moral foundations of their age and the monolith of the existing world order, shattered, transgressed the prohibitions of earth and sky. And at the same time, there is no supernatural, magic in the Divine Comedy. For Dante and his readers, the geography of hell is absolutely real and the infernal whirlwind carrying lovers is real. Here is the same naturalness of the supernatural, the reality of the unreal, which was inherent in ancient tragedy. And it is this return to antiquity on a new basis that makes Dante one of the first exponents of the ideas of the Renaissance.
Medieval man explained the world by God. The man of modern times sought to show that the world is the cause of itself. In philosophy, this was expressed in Spinoza's classic thesis of nature as the cause of itself. In art, this principle was embodied and expressed by Shakespeare half a century earlier. For him, the whole world, including the sphere of human passions and tragedies, does not need any otherworldly explanation, he himself is at the heart of it.
Romeo and Juliet carry the circumstances of their lives. Action is born from the characters themselves. Fatal words: “His name is Romeo: he is the son of Montecchi, the son of your enemy” - did not change Juliet's relationship to her lover. The only measure and driving force of her actions is herself, her character, her love for Romeo.
The Renaissance in its own way solved the problems of love and honor, life and death, personality and society, for the first time exposing the social nature of the tragic conflict. The tragedy during this period revealed the state of the world, affirmed the activity of man and his freedom of will. At the same time, the tragedy of the unregulated personality arose. The only regulation for a person was the first and last commandment of the Thelema monastery: “Do what you want” (Rabelais. "Gargartua and Pantagruel"). However, having freed himself from medieval religious morality, a person sometimes lost all morality, conscience, and honor. Shakespeare's heroes (Othello, Hamlet) are relaxed and not limited in their actions. And just as free and unregulated are the actions of the forces of evil (Iago, Claudius).
The hopes of the humanists that a person, having got rid of medieval restrictions, would reasonably and in the name of good dispose of his freedom, turned out to be illusory. The utopia of an unregulated personality actually turned into its absolute regulation. France in the 17th century this regulation manifested itself: in the sphere of politics - in an absolutist state, in the sphere of science and philosophy - in Descartes's teaching about the method that introduces human thought into the mainstream of strict rules, in the sphere of art - in classicism. The tragedy of utopian absolute freedom is being replaced by the tragedy of real absolute normative conditioning of the individual.
In the art of romanticism (H. Heine, F. Schiller, J. Byron, F. Chopin) the state of the world is expressed through the state of the spirit. Disappointment in the results of the Great French Revolution and the disbelief in social progress caused by it give rise to world sorrow, characteristic of romanticism. Romanticism is aware that the universal principle may not have a divine, but a diabolical nature and is capable of bringing evil. In the tragedies of Byron ("Cain"), the inevitability of evil and the eternity of the struggle with it are affirmed. The embodiment of such universal evil is Lucifer. Cain cannot come to terms with any restrictions on the freedom and power of the human spirit. But evil is omnipotent, and the hero cannot eliminate it from life even at the cost of his own death. However, for the romantic consciousness, the struggle is not meaningless: the tragic hero, by his struggle, creates oases of life in the desert, where evil reigns.
The art of critical realism revealed the tragic discord between the individual and society. One of the greatest tragic works of the 19th century. - "Boris Godunov" by A. S. Pushkin. Godunov wants to use power for the benefit of the people. But on the way to power, he does evil - he kills the innocent Tsarevich Dimitri. And between Boris and the people lay an abyss of estrangement, and then of anger. Pushkin shows that it is impossible to fight for the people without the people. The fate of man is the fate of the people; the deeds of the individual are for the first time compared with the good of the people. This issue is the birth of a new era.
The same feature is inherent in the operatic and musical tragic images of M. P. Mussorgsky. His operas "Boris Godunov" and "Khovanshchina" ingeniously embody Pushkin's formula of tragedy about the fusion of human and national destinies. For the first time, a people appeared on the opera stage, animated by a single idea of ​​the struggle against slavery, violence, and arbitrariness. An in-depth characterization of the people set off the tragedy of the conscience of Tsar Boris. For all his good intentions, Boris remains a stranger to the people and secretly fears the people, who see it in him as the cause of their misfortunes. Mussorgsky deeply developed specific musical means of conveying the tragic life content: musical and dramatic contrasts, bright thematics, mournful intonations, gloomy tonality and dark timbres of orchestration.
Of great importance for the development of the philosophical principle in tragic musical works was the development of the theme of rock in Beethoven's Fifth Symphony. This theme was further developed in Tchaikovsky's Fourth, Sixth, and especially Fifth Symphonies. The tragic in Tchaikovsky's symphonies expresses the contradiction between human aspirations and life's obstacles, between the infinity of creative impulses and the finiteness of the being of the individual.
In the critical realism of the XIX century. (Dickens, Balzac, Stendhal, Gogol, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky and others) the non-tragic character becomes the hero of tragic situations. In life, the tragedy has become an "ordinary story", and its hero - an alienated person. And therefore, in art, tragedy as a genre disappears, but as an element it penetrates into all kinds and genres of art, capturing the intolerance of discord between man and society.
In order for tragedy to cease to be a constant companion of social life, society must become humane, come into harmony with the individual. The desire of a person to overcome discord with the world, the search for the lost meaning of life - such is the concept of the tragic and the pathos of developing this topic in the critical realism of the 20th century. (E. Hemingway, W. Faulkner, L. Frank, G. Böll, F. Fellini, M. Antonioni, J. Gershwin and others).
Tragic art reveals the social meaning of human life and shows that the immortality of man is realized in the immortality of the people. An important theme of the tragedy is “man and history”. The world-historical context of human actions turns him into a conscious or involuntary participant in the historical process. This makes the hero responsible for choosing the path, for the correct solution of life issues and understanding of its meaning. The character of the tragic hero is adjusted by the very course of history, by its laws. The theme of the individual's responsibility to history is deeply disclosed in The Quiet Don by M. A. Sholokhov. The character of his hero is contradictory: he is either shallow, or deepened by internal torments, or tempered by severe trials. His fate is tragic.
In music, a new type of tragic symphonism was developed by D. D. Shostakovich. If in the symphonies of P. I. Tchaikovsky fate always invades the life of a person from the outside as a powerful, inhuman, hostile force, then in Shostakovich such a confrontation arises only once - when the composer reveals a catastrophic invasion of evil, interrupting the calm course of life (the theme of invasion in the first part of the Seventh symphonies).
4. TRAGIC IN LIFE
The manifestations of the tragic in life are diverse: from the death of a child or the death of a person full of creative energy to the defeat of the national liberation movement; from the tragedy of an individual to the tragedy of an entire nation. Tragic can also be concluded in the struggle of man with the forces of nature. But the main source of this category is the struggle between good and evil, death and immortality, where death affirms life values, reveals the meaning of human existence, where the philosophical understanding of the world takes place.
The First World War, for example, went down in history as one of the bloodiest and most brutal wars. Never (before 1914) did the opposing sides put up such huge armies for mutual destruction. All the achievements of science and technology were aimed at exterminating people. During the war years, 10 million people were killed, 20 million people were wounded. In addition, significant casualties were suffered by the civilian population, who died not only as a result of hostilities, but also from hunger and disease that raged during the war. The war also entailed colossal material losses, gave rise to a mass revolutionary and democratic movement, the participants of which demanded a radical renewal of life.
Then, in January 1933, the fascist National Socialist Workers' Party, the party of revenge and war, came to power in Germany. By the summer of 1941, Germany and Italy had occupied 12 European countries and extended their dominance to a significant part of Europe. In the occupied countries, they established a fascist occupation regime, which they called the "new order": they eliminated democratic freedoms, dissolved political parties and trade unions, and banned strikes and demonstrations. Industry worked on the orders of the occupiers, agriculture supplied them with raw materials and food, labor was used in the construction of military facilities. All this led to the Second World War, as a result of which fascism suffered a complete defeat. But unlike World War I, in World War II, most of the casualties were civilians. Only in the USSR, the dead amounted to at least 27 million people. In Germany, 12 million people were killed in concentration camps. Five million people became victims of war and repression in Western European countries. To these 60 million lives lost in Europe must be added the many millions of people who perished in the Pacific and other theaters of the Second World War.
No sooner had the people recovered from one world tragedy than on August 6, 1945, an American plane dropped an atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. The atomic explosion caused terrible disasters: 90% of the buildings burned down, the rest turned into ruins. Of the 306 thousand inhabitants of Hiroshima, more than 90 thousand people died immediately. Tens of thousands of people later died from wounds, burns and radiation exposure. With the explosion of the first atomic bomb, humanity received at its disposal an inexhaustible source of energy and at the same time a terrible weapon capable of destroying all life.
No sooner had mankind entered the 20th century than a new wave of tragic events swept over the entire planet. This includes the intensification of terrorist actions, and natural disasters, and environmental problems. Economic activity in a number of states today is developed so powerfully that it affects the ecological situation not only within a single country, but also far beyond its borders.
Typical examples:
- The UK exports 2/3 of its industrial emissions.
- 75-90% of acid rain in the Scandinavian countries are of foreign origin.
- Acid rain in the UK affects 2/3 of forests, and in continental Europe - about half of their areas.
- The United States lacks the oxygen that is naturally reproduced in their territory.
- The largest rivers, lakes, seas of Europe and North America are intensively polluted by industrial waste from enterprises in various countries using their water resources.
- From 1950 to 1984, the production of mineral fertilizers increased from 13.5 million tons to 121 million tons per year. Their use gave 1/3 of the increase in agricultural production.
At the same time, the use of chemical fertilizers, as well as various chemical plant protection products, has sharply increased in recent decades and has become one of the most important causes of global environmental pollution. Carried by water and air over great distances, they are included in the geochemical cycle of substances throughout the Earth, often causing significant damage to nature, and to man himself. Quite characteristic of our time has become the rapidly developing process of the withdrawal of environmentally harmful enterprises to underdeveloped countries.
Before our eyes, the era of extensive use of the potential of the biosphere is coming to an end. This is confirmed by the following factors:
- Today, there are very few uncultivated lands left for agriculture.
- Systematically increasing the area of ​​deserts. From 1975 to 2000, it increased by 20%.
- The reduction of the planet's forest cover is of great concern. From 1950 to 2000, the area of ​​forests will decrease by almost 10%, and forests are the lungs of the whole Earth.
- The exploitation of water basins, including the World Ocean, is carried out on such a scale that nature does not have time to reproduce what man takes.
Currently, as a result of intense human activity, climate change is taking place.
Compared with the beginning of the last century, the content of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by 30%, and 10% of this increase has come from the last 30 years. An increase in its concentration leads to the so-called greenhouse effect, as a result of which the climate of the entire planet is warming, which, in turn, will cause irreversible processes:
- melting ice;
- rise in the level of the world ocean by one meter;
- flooding of many coastal areas;
- change in moisture exchange on the Earth's surface;
- reducing the amount of precipitation;
- change in wind direction.
It is clear that such changes will pose huge problems for people related to the management of the economy, the reproduction of the necessary conditions for their life.
Today, as rightly one of the first marks of V.I. Vernadsky, humanity has gained such power in transforming the surrounding world that it begins to significantly influence the evolution of the biosphere as a whole.
Human economic activity in our time already entails climate change, it affects the chemical composition of the water and air basins of the Earth, the flora and fauna of the planet, and its entire appearance. And this is the tragedy of all mankind as a whole.
CONCLUSION
Tragedy is a harsh word, full of hopelessness. It carries a cold reflection of death, it breathes with icy breath. But the consciousness of death makes a person more acutely experience all the charm and bitterness, all the joy and complexity of being. And when death is nearby, then in this “borderline” situation, all the colors of the world, its aesthetic richness, its sensual charm, the grandeur of the familiar, are more clearly visible, truth and falsehood, good and evil, the very meaning of human existence.
Tragedy is always an optimistic tragedy in it even death serves life.
So the tragic reveals:
1. death or severe suffering of a person;
2. irreparable for people of its loss;
3. immortal socially valuable principles, embedded in a unique individuality, and its continuation in the life of mankind;
4. higher problems of being, the social meaning of human life;
5. activity of a tragic nature in relation to circumstances;
6. philosophically meaningful state of the world;
7. historically, temporarily insoluble contradictions;
8. tragic, embodied in art, has a cleansing effect on people.
The central problem of the tragic work is the expansion of human capabilities, the breaking of those boundaries that have historically developed, but have become tight for the most courageous and active people, inspired by high ideals. The tragic hero paves the way to the future, blows up the established boundaries, he is always at the forefront of the struggle of mankind, the greatest difficulties fall on his shoulders. Tragedy reveals the social meaning of life. The essence and purpose of human existence: the development of the individual should go not at the expense, but in the name of the whole society, in the name of humanity. On the other hand, the whole of society must develop in man and through man, and not in spite of him and not at his expense. Such is the highest aesthetic ideal, such is the path to a humanistic solution to the problem of man and mankind, offered by the world history of tragic art.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Borev Yu. Aesthetics. - M., 2002
2. Bychkov V.V. Aesthetics. - M., 2004
3. Divnenko O. V. Aesthetics. - M., 1995
4. Nikitich L.A. Aesthetics. - M., 2003

Tragic in art. Each era brings its own features to the tragic and emphasizes certain aspects of its nature.

Thus, for example, Greek tragedy is characterized by an open course of action. The Greeks managed to keep their tragedies entertaining, although both the actors and the audience were often informed about the will of the gods or the choir predicted the further course of events.

The audience was well aware of the plots of ancient myths, on the basis of which tragedies were mainly created. The amusement of Greek tragedy was firmly based on the logic of action. The meaning of the tragedy was in the nature of the behavior of the hero. The death and misfortunes of the tragic hero are known for sure. And this is the naivete, freshness and beauty of ancient Greek art. Such a course of action played a great artistic role, intensifying the tragic emotion of the viewer.

The hero of ancient tragedy is not able to prevent the inevitable, but he fights, acts, and only through his freedom, through his actions, what must happen is realized. Such, for example, is Oedipus in Sophocles' tragedy Oedipus the King. By his own will, consciously and freely, he searches for the causes of the misfortunes that have fallen on the heads of the inhabitants of Thebes. And when it turns out that the “investigation” threatens to turn against the main “investigator” and that the culprit of the misfortune of Thebes is Oedipus himself, who killed his father by the will of fate and married his mother, he does not stop the “investigation”, but brings it to the end.

Such is Antigone, the heroine of another tragedy by Sophocles. Unlike her sister Ismene, Antigone does not obey the order of Creon, who, under pain of death, forbids the burial of her brother, who fought against Thebes. The law of tribal relations, expressed in the need to bury the body of a brother, no matter what the cost, acts equally in relation to both sisters, but Antigone becomes a tragic hero because she fulfills this necessity in her free actions.

Greek tragedy is heroic. The goal of ancient tragedy is catharsis. The feelings depicted in the tragedy purify the viewer's feelings. In the Middle Ages, the tragic appears not as heroic, but as martyrdom. Its purpose is comfort. In the medieval theater, the passive principle was emphasized in the actor's interpretation of the image of Christ. Sometimes the actor “got used” to the image of the crucified so much that he himself was not far from death.

Medieval tragedy is alien to the concept of catharsis. This is not a tragedy of purification, but a tragedy of consolation. It is characterized by logic: you feel bad, but they (the heroes, or rather, the martyrs of the tragedy) are better than you, and they are worse off than you, so take comfort in your sufferings by the fact that there are worse sufferings, and torments are harder for people, even less, than you deserve it. The consolation of the earth (you are not the only one who suffers) is enhanced by the consolation of the other world (there you will not suffer, and you will be rewarded according to your deserts). If in ancient tragedy the most unusual things happen quite naturally, then in medieval tragedy an important place is occupied by the supernatural nature of what is happening.

At the turn of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, the majestic figure of Dante rises. Dante has no doubts about the need for eternal torment by Francesca and Paolo, who with their love violated the moral foundations of their age and the monolith of the existing world order, shattered, transgressed the prohibitions of earth and sky. And at the same time, there is no supernatural, magic in the Divine Comedy.

For Dante and his readers, the geography of hell is absolutely real and the infernal whirlwind carrying lovers is real. Here is the same naturalness of the supernatural, the reality of the unreal, which was inherent in ancient tragedy. And it is this return to antiquity on a new basis that makes Dante one of the first exponents of the ideas of the Renaissance. Medieval man explained the world by God. The man of modern times sought to show that the world is the cause of itself. In philosophy, this was expressed in Spinoza's classic thesis of nature as the cause of itself. In art, this principle was embodied and expressed by Shakespeare half a century earlier.

For him, the whole world, including the sphere of human passions and tragedies, does not need any otherworldly explanation, he himself is at the heart of it. Romeo and Juliet carry the circumstances of their lives. Action is born from the characters themselves. Fatal words: “His name is Romeo: he is the son of Montecchi, the son of your enemy” - did not change Juliet's relationship to her lover.

The only measure and driving force of her actions is herself, her character, her love for Romeo. The Renaissance in its own way solved the problems of love and honor, life and death, personality and society, for the first time exposing the social nature of the tragic conflict. The tragedy during this period revealed the state of the world, affirmed the activity of man and his freedom of will. At the same time, the tragedy of the unregulated personality arose. The only regulation for a person was the first and last commandment of the Thelema monastery: "Do what you want" (Rabelais. "Gargartua and Pantagruel"). However, having freed himself from medieval religious morality, a person sometimes lost all morality, conscience, and honor.

Shakespeare's heroes (Othello, Hamlet) are relaxed and not limited in their actions. And just as free and unregulated are the actions of the forces of evil (Iago, Claudius). The hopes of the humanists that a person, having got rid of medieval restrictions, would reasonably and in the name of good dispose of his freedom, turned out to be illusory.

The utopia of an unregulated personality actually turned into its absolute regulation. France in the 17th century this regulation manifested itself: in the sphere of politics - in an absolutist state, in the sphere of science and philosophy - in Descartes's teaching about the method that introduces human thought into the mainstream of strict rules, in the sphere of art - in classicism. The tragedy of utopian absolute freedom is being replaced by the tragedy of real absolute normative conditioning of the individual. In the art of romanticism (H. Heine, F. Schiller, J. Byron, F. Chopin) the state of the world is expressed through the state of the spirit. Disappointment in the results of the Great French Revolution and the disbelief in social progress caused by it give rise to world sorrow, characteristic of romanticism.

Romanticism is aware that the universal principle may not have a divine, but a diabolical nature and is capable of bringing evil. In the tragedies of Byron ("Cain"), the inevitability of evil and the eternity of the struggle with it are affirmed. The embodiment of such universal evil is Lucifer.

Cain cannot come to terms with any restrictions on the freedom and power of the human spirit. But evil is omnipotent, and the hero cannot eliminate it from life even at the cost of his own death. However, for the romantic consciousness, the struggle is not meaningless: the tragic hero, by his struggle, creates oases of life in the desert, where evil reigns. The art of critical realism revealed the tragic discord between the individual and society. One of the greatest tragic works of the 19th century. - "Boris Godunov" by A. S. Pushkin.

Godunov wants to use power for the benefit of the people. But on the way to power, he does evil - he kills the innocent Tsarevich Dimitri. And between Boris and the people lay an abyss of estrangement, and then of anger. Pushkin shows that it is impossible to fight for the people without the people. The fate of man is the fate of the people; the deeds of the individual are for the first time compared with the good of the people. This issue is the birth of a new era. The same feature is inherent in the operatic and musical tragic images of M. P. Mussorgsky.

His operas "Boris Godunov" and "Khovanshchina" ingeniously embody Pushkin's formula of tragedy about the fusion of human and national destinies. For the first time, a people appeared on the opera stage, animated by a single idea of ​​the struggle against slavery, violence, and arbitrariness. An in-depth characterization of the people set off the tragedy of the conscience of Tsar Boris. For all his good intentions, Boris remains a stranger to the people and secretly fears the people, who see it in him as the cause of their misfortunes. Mussorgsky deeply developed specific musical means of conveying the tragic life content: musical and dramatic contrasts, bright thematics, mournful intonations, gloomy tonality and dark timbres of orchestration. Of great importance for the development of the philosophical principle in tragic musical works was the development of the theme of rock in Beethoven's Fifth Symphony.

This theme was further developed in Tchaikovsky's Fourth, Sixth, and especially Fifth Symphonies. The tragic in Tchaikovsky's symphonies expresses the contradiction between human aspirations and life's obstacles, between the infinity of creative impulses and the finiteness of the being of the individual. In the critical realism of the XIX century. (Dickens, Balzac, Stendhal, Gogol, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky and others) the non-tragic character becomes the hero of tragic situations.

In life, the tragedy has become an "ordinary story", and its hero - an alienated person. And therefore, in art, tragedy as a genre disappears, but as an element it penetrates into all kinds and genres of art, capturing the intolerance of discord between man and society. In order for tragedy to cease to be a constant companion of social life, society must become humane, come into harmony with the individual.

The desire of a person to overcome discord with the world, the search for the lost meaning of life - such is the concept of the tragic and the pathos of developing this topic in the critical realism of the 20th century. (E. Hemingway, W. Faulkner, L. Frank, G. Böll, F. Fellini, M. Antonioni, J. Gershwin and others). Tragic art reveals the social meaning of human life and shows that the immortality of man is realized in the immortality of the people.

An important theme of the tragedy is “man and history”. The world-historical context of human actions turns him into a conscious or involuntary participant in the historical process. This makes the hero responsible for choosing the path, for the correct solution of life issues and understanding of its meaning. The character of the tragic hero is adjusted by the very course of history, by its laws. The theme of the individual's responsibility to history is deeply disclosed in The Quiet Don by M. A. Sholokhov.

The character of his hero is contradictory: he is either shallow, or deepened by internal torments, or tempered by severe trials. His fate is tragic. In music, a new type of tragic symphonism was developed by D. D. Shostakovich. If in the symphonies of P. I. Tchaikovsky fate always invades the life of a person from the outside as a powerful, inhuman, hostile force, then in Shostakovich such a confrontation arises only once - when the composer reveals a catastrophic invasion of evil, interrupting the calm course of life (the theme of invasion in the first part of the Seventh symphonies). 4.

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Tragic is a philosophical category in art that characterizes the occurrence of suffering and experiences of the heroes of works as a result of their free will or destiny. The viewer empathized and sympathized with the hero of the tragedy. In a general sense, the tragic is characterized by the struggle of the moral ideal with objective reality. Each era brings its own features to the tragic and emphasizes certain aspects of its nature.

The Greeks managed to keep their tragedies entertaining, although both the actors and the audience were often informed about the will of the gods or the choir predicted the further course of events. The meaning of the tragedy was in the nature of the behavior of the hero. The death and misfortunes of the tragic hero are known for sure. The hero of ancient tragedy is not able to prevent the inevitable, but he fights, acts, and only through his freedom, through his actions, what must happen is realized. Such, for example, is Oedipus in Sophocles' tragedy Oedipus the King. Such is Antigone, the heroine of another tragedy by Sophocles. Unlike her sister Ismene, Antigone does not obey the order of Creon, who, under pain of death, forbids the burial of her brother, who fought against Thebes. Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet carry the circumstances of their lives. The Renaissance in its own way solved the problems of love and honor, life and death, personality and society, for the first time exposing the social nature of the tragic conflict. The tragedy during this period revealed the state of the world, affirmed the activity of man and his freedom of will. In order for tragedy to cease to be a constant companion of social life, society must become humane, come into harmony with the individual. The desire of a person to overcome discord with the world, the search for the lost meaning of life.

Tragic art reveals the social meaning of human life and shows that the immortality of man is realized in the immortality of the people. An important theme of the tragedy is "man and history". The character of the tragic hero is adjusted by the very course of history, by its laws. The theme of the individual's responsibility to history is deeply disclosed in The Quiet Don by M. A. Sholokhov. The character of his hero is contradictory: he is either shallow, or deepened by internal torments, or tempered by severe trials. His fate is tragic. In music, a new type of tragic symphonism was developed by D. D. Shostakovich. If in the symphonies of P. I. Tchaikovsky fate always invades the life of a person from the outside as a powerful, inhuman, hostile force, then in Shostakovich such a confrontation arises only once - when the composer reveals a catastrophic invasion of evil that interrupts the calm course of life (the theme of invasion in the first part of the Seventh symphonies).

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………..3

1. Tragedy - irreparable loss and affirmation of immortality………………..4

2. General philosophical aspects of the tragic……………….……………………...5

3. Tragic in art…………………………………………………………….7

4. Tragic in life………………………………………………………………..12

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………….16

References……………………………………………………………………18

INTRODUCTION

Aesthetically evaluating phenomena, a person determines the measure of his dominance over the world. This measure depends on the level and nature of the development of society, its production. The latter reveals one or another meaning for a person of the natural properties of objects, determines their aesthetic properties. This explains that the aesthetic manifests itself in different forms: beautiful, ugly, sublime, base, tragic, comic, etc.

The expansion of human social practice entails an expansion of the range of aesthetic properties and aesthetically evaluated phenomena.

There is no epoch in the history of mankind that would not be full of tragic events. Man is mortal, and every person living a conscious life cannot fail to comprehend his attitude to death and immortality in one way or another. tragic topic. Through the entire history of world art passes as one of the general theme of the tragic. In other words, the history of society, and the history of art, and the life of the individual in one way or another are in contact with the problem of the tragic. All this determines its importance for aesthetics.

1. TRAGEDY - IRREVERSIBLE LOSS AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF IMMORTALITY

The 20th century is the century of the greatest social upheavals, crises, turbulent changes, creating the most difficult, most tense situations in one or another point on the globe. Therefore, the theoretical analysis of the problem of the tragic for us is self-analysis and understanding of the world in which we live.

In the art of different peoples, tragic death turns into resurrection, and sorrow turns into joy. For example, ancient Indian aesthetics expressed this pattern through the concept of "samsara", which means the cycle of life and death, the reincarnation of a dead person into another living being, depending on the nature of the life he lived. The reincarnation of souls among the ancient Indians was associated with the idea of ​​aesthetic improvement, the ascent to a more beautiful. In the Vedas, the oldest monument of Indian literature, the beauty of the afterlife and the joy of going into it were affirmed.

Since ancient times, human consciousness could not come to terms with non-existence. As soon as people began to think about death, they asserted immortality, and in non-existence people set aside a place for evil and accompanied him there with laughter.

Paradoxically, it is not tragedy that speaks of death, but satire. Satire proves the mortality of living and even triumphant evil. And tragedy affirms immortality, reveals the good and beautiful beginnings in a person who triumph, win, despite the death of the hero.

Tragedy is a mournful song about an irreparable loss, a joyful hymn to the immortality of a person. It is this deep nature of the tragic that manifests itself when a feeling of grief is resolved with joy (“I am happy”), death is immortality.

2. GENERAL PHILOSOPHICAL ASPECTS OF THE TRAGIC

A person leaves life irrevocably. Death is the transformation of the living into the inanimate. However, the dead remains alive: culture preserves everything that has passed, it is the extra-genetic memory of mankind. G. Heine said that under every tombstone is the history of the whole world, which cannot leave without a trace.

Understanding the death of a unique individuality as the irreparable collapse of the whole world, tragedy at the same time affirms the strength, the infinity of the universe, despite the departure of a finite being from it. And in this very finite being, tragedy finds immortal traits that make the personality related to the universe, the finite to the infinite. Tragedy is a philosophical art that poses and solves the highest metaphysical problems of life and death, realizing the meaning of being, analyzing the global problems of its stability, eternity, infinity, despite the constant variability.

In tragedy, as Hegel believed, death is not only annihilation. It also means the preservation in a transfigured form of that which in this form must perish. Hegel contrasts the being suppressed by the instinct of self-preservation with the idea of ​​liberation from the "slave consciousness", the ability to sacrifice one's life for the sake of higher goals. The ability to comprehend the idea of ​​infinite development for Hegel is the most important characteristic of human consciousness.

K. Marksuzhe in his early works criticizes the idea of ​​individual immortality of Plutarch, putting forward the idea of ​​social immortality of man as opposed to it. For Marx, people who are afraid that after their death the fruits of their deeds will go not to them, but to humanity, are insolvent. The products of human activity are the best continuation of human life, while hopes for individual immortality are illusory.

In understanding the tragic situations in the world artistic culture, two extreme positions have emerged: existentialist and Buddhist.

Existentialism has made death the central problem of philosophy and art. German philosopher K. Jaspers emphasizes that knowledge about a person is tragic knowledge. In the book “On the Tragic”, he notes that the tragic begins where a person takes all his abilities to the extreme, knowing that he will die. It is like the self-fulfillment of the individual at the cost of his own life. “Therefore, in tragic knowledge, it is essential what a person suffers from and because of what he perishes, what he takes upon himself, in the face of what reality and in what form he betrays his being.” Jaspers proceeds from the fact that the tragic hero in himself carries both his own happiness and his own death.

A tragic hero is a carrier of something that goes beyond the framework of individual existence, a carrier of power, principle, character, a demon. Tragedy shows a person in his greatness, free from good and evil, writes Jaspers, substantiating this position by referring to Plato's idea that neither good nor evil comes from a small character, and a great nature is capable of both great evil and great good.

Tragism exists where forces collide, each of which considers itself true. On this basis, Jaspers believes that truth is not one, that it is split, and tragedy reveals this.

Thus, existentialists absolutize the inherent value of the individual and emphasize its exclusion from society, which leads their concept to a paradox: fatality ceases to be a social problem. A person who is left alone with the universe, who does not feel humanity around him, embraces the terribly inevitable finiteness of being. She is cut off from people and in fact turns out to be absurd, and her life is devoid of meaning and value.

For Buddhism, a person, dying, turns into another being, he equates death with life (a person, dying, continues to live, therefore death does not change anything). In both cases, virtually every tragedy is removed.

The fatality of personality acquires a tragic sound only where a person, possessing self-worth, lives in the name of people, their interests become the content of his life. In this case, on the one hand, there is a unique individual originality and value of the individual, and on the other hand, the dying hero finds continuation in the life of society. Therefore, the death of such a hero is tragic and gives rise to a feeling of irretrievable loss of human individuality (and hence grief), and at the same time, the idea of ​​continuing the life of the individual in humanity (hence the motive of joy) arises.

The source of the tragic is specific social contradictions - collisions between a socially necessary, urgent requirement and the temporary practical impossibility of its implementation. The inevitable insufficiency of knowledge, ignorance often become the source of the greatest tragedies. The tragic is the sphere of comprehension of world-historical contradictions, the search for a way out for humanity. This category reflects not just the misfortune of a person caused by particular malfunctions, but the disasters of mankind, some fundamental imperfections of being that affect the fate of the individual.

3. TRAGIC IN ART

Each era brings its own features to the tragic and emphasizes certain aspects of its nature.

Thus, for example, Greek tragedy is characterized by an open course of action. The Greeks managed to keep their tragedies entertaining, although both the actors and the audience were often informed about the will of the gods or the choir predicted the further course of events. The audience knew the plots of ancient myths well, on the basis of which tragedies were mainly created. The amusement of Greek tragedy was firmly based on the logic of action. The meaning of the tragedy was in the nature of the behavior of the hero. The deaths of the misfortune of the tragic hero are known for sure. And this is the naivete, freshness and beauty of ancient Greek art. Such a course of action played a large artistic role, enhancing the viewer's tragic emotion.

The hero of an ancient tragedy is not able to prevent the inevitable, but he fights, acts, and only through his freedom, through his actions, is what must happen realized. Such, for example, is Oedipus in Sophocles' tragedy Oedipus the King. In his own will, consciously and freely, he searches for the causes of the misfortunes that have fallen on the head of the inhabitants of Thebes. And when it turns out that the “investigation” threatens to turn against the main “investigator” and that the culprit of the misfortune of Thebes is Oedipus himself, who killed his father by the will of fate and married his mother, he does not stop the “investigation”, but brings it to the end. Such is Antigone, the heroine of another tragedy by Sophocles. Unlike her sister Ismene, Antigone does not obey the order of Creon, who, under pain of death, forbids the burial of her brother, who fought against Thebes. The law of tribal relations, expressed in the need to bury the body of a brother, no matter what the cost, acts equally on both sisters, but Antigone becomes a tragic hero because she fulfills this need in her free actions.

Greek tragedy is heroic.

Celantic tragedy is a catharsis. The feelings depicted in the tragedy purify the feelings of the viewer.

In the Middle Ages, the tragic appears not as heroic, but as martyrdom. Its goal is consolation. In the medieval theater, the passive principle was emphasized in the actor's interpretation of the image of Christ. Sometimes the actor "got used" to the image of the crucified so much that he himself was not far from death.

Medieval tragedy is alien to the concept of catharsis . This is not a tragedy of cleansing, an atragedy of consolation. It is characterized by logic: you feel bad, but they (the heroes, or rather, the martyrs of the tragedy) are better than you, and they are worse off than you, so take comfort in your sufferings by the fact that there are worse sufferings, and the torments are harder for people, even less than you, deserving of it. Earthly consolation (you are not the only one who suffers) is enhanced by otherworldly consolation (there you will not suffer, and you will be rewarded according to your deserts).

If in ancient tragedy the most unusual things happen quite naturally, in medieval tragedy an important place is occupied by the supernatural nature of what is happening.

At the turn of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, the majestic figure of Dante rises. There is no doubt in Dante about the need for eternal torment by Francesca and Paolo, who with their love violated the moral foundations of their age and the monolith of the existing world order, shattered and transgressed the prohibitions of earth and sky. And at the same time, there is no supernatural, magic in the Divine Comedy. For Dante and his readers, the geography of hell is absolutely real and the infernal whirlwind carrying lovers is real. Here is the same naturalness of the supernatural, the reality of the unreal, which was inherent in ancient tragedy. And it is precisely this return of canticism on a new basis that makes Dante one of the first exponents of the ideas of the Renaissance.

Medieval man explained the world by God. The man of modern times sought to show that worldliness is the cause of itself. In philosophy, this was expressed in the classic thesis of Spinoza about nature as the cause of itself. In art, this principle was embodied and expressed by Shakespeare half a century earlier. For him, the whole world, including the sphere of human passions and tragedies, does not need any otherworldly explanation, he himself is at its core.

Romeo and Juliet carry the circumstances of their lives. Action is born from the characters themselves. Fatal words: "His name is Romeo: he is the son of Montecchi, the son of your enemy" - did not change Juliet's relationship to her lover. The only measure and driving force of her actions is herself, her character, her love for Romeo.

The Renaissance in its own way solved the problems of love and honor, life and death, personality and society, for the first time exposing the social nature of the tragic conflict. The tragedy during this period revealed the state of the world, affirmed the activity of man and the freedom of his will. At the same time, the tragedy of an unregulated personality arose. The only regulation for a person was the first and last commandment of the Thelema monastery: “Do what you want” (Rabelais. “Gargartua and Pantagruel”). However, having freed himself from medieval religious morality, a person sometimes lost all morality, conscience, and honor. Shakespeare's heroes (Othello, Hamlet) are uninhibited and not limited in their actions. And the actions of the forces of evil are just as free and not regulated in any way (Iago, Claudius).

Illusory turned out to be the hopes of humanists that a person, having got rid of medieval restrictions, would reasonably and in the name of good dispose of his freedom. The utopia of an unregulated personality actually turned into its absolute regulation. In France in the 17th century. this regulation manifested itself: in the sphere of politics - in an absolutist state, in the sphere of science and philosophy - Descartes' teaching about the method that introduces human thought into the mainstream of strict rules, in the sphere of art - in classicism. The tragedy of utopian absolute freedom is being replaced by the tragedy of real absolute normative conditioning of the individual.

In the art of romanticism (G. Heine, F. Schiller, J. Byron, F. Chopin), the state of the world is expressed through the state of the spirit. Disappointment in the results of the Great French Revolution and the disbelief in social progress caused by it give rise to world sorrow, characteristic of romanticism. Romanticism is aware that the universal beginning may not have a divine, but a diabolical nature and is capable of carrying evil. In the tragedies of Byron ("Cain"), the inevitability of evil and the eternity of the struggle against it are affirmed. The embodiment of such universal evil is Lucifer. Cain cannot accept any restrictions on the freedom and power of the human spirit. But it is omnipotent, and the hero cannot eliminate him from life even at the cost of his death. However, for the romantic consciousness, the struggle is not meaningless: the tragic hero, by his struggle, creates oases of life in the desert, where evil reigns.

The art of critical realism revealed the tragic discord between the individual and society. One of the greatest tragic works of the 19th century. - "Boris Godunov" by A. S. Pushkin. Godunov wants to use power for the benefit of the people. But on the way to power, he commits evil - he kills the innocent Tsarevich Dimitri. And between Boris and the people lay an abyss of alienation, and then of anger. Pushkin shows that one cannot fight for the people without the people. The fate of man is the fate of the people; for the first time, the deeds of the individual are compared with the good of the people. This issue is the birth of a new era.

The same feature is inherent in the operatic and musical tragic images of M. P. Mussorgsky. His operas Boris Godunov and Khovanshchina ingeniously embody Pushkin's formula of tragedy about the fusion of human and people's destinies. For the first time, a people appeared on the opera stage, animated by a single idea of ​​the struggle against slavery, violence, and arbitrariness. An in-depth characterization of the people shaded the tragedy of the conscience of Tsar Boris. For all his good intentions, Boris remains a stranger to the people and secretly fears the people, who see him as the cause of their disasters. Mussorgsky deeply developed specific musical means of conveying the tragic life content: musical and dramatic contrasts, bright thematics, mournful intonations, gloomy tonality and dark timbres of orchestration.

Of great importance for the development of the philosophical principle in tragic musical works was the development of the theme of rock in Beethoven's Fifth Symphony. This theme was further developed in Tchaikovsky's Fourth, Sixth and especially Fifth Symphonies. The tragic in Tchaikovsky's symphonies expresses the contradiction between human aspirations and life's obstacles, between the infinity of creative impulses and the finiteness of the individual's being.

In the critical realism of the XIX century. (Dickens, Balzac, Stendhal, Gogol, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky and others) non-tragic character becomes the hero of tragic situations. In life, the tragedy has become an "ordinary story", and its hero - an alienated person. And therefore, in art, tragedy disappears as a genre, but as an element it penetrates into all kinds and genres of art, capturing the intolerance of discord between man and society.

In order for tragedy to cease to be a constant companion of social life, society must become humane, come into harmony with the individual. The desire of a person to overcome discord with the world, the search for the lost meaning of life - such is the concept of the tragic and the pathos of developing this topic in critical realism of the 20th century. (E. Hemingway, W. Faulkner, L. Frank, G. Böll, F. Fellini, M. Antonioni, J. Gershwin and others).

Tragic art reveals the social meaning of human life and shows that the immortality of a person is realized in the immortality of the people. An important theme of the tragedy is “man and history”. The world-historical context of a person's actions turns him into a conscious or involuntary participant in the historical process. This makes the hero responsible for choosing the path, for the correct solution of the issues of life and understanding of its meaning. The character of the tragic hero is verified by the very course of history, by its laws. The theme of the responsibility of the individual to history is deeply disclosed in the "Quiet Don" by M. A. Sholokhov. The character of his hero is contradictory: he either becomes smaller, or deepens with internal torments, or is tempered by severe trials. His fate is tragic.

In music, a new type of tragic symphonism was developed by D. D. Shostakovich. If in the symphonies of P. I. Tchaikovsky, rock always invades the life of a person from the outside as a powerful, inhuman, hostile force, then in Shostakovich such a confrontation arises only once - when the composer reveals a catastrophic invasion of evil that interrupts the calm course of life (the theme of the invasion in the first part of the Seventh Symphony).

4. TRAGIC IN LIFE

The manifestations of the tragic in life are diverse: from the death of a child or the death of a person full of creative energy to the defeat of the national liberation movement; from the tragedy of an individual to the tragedy of an entire people. Tragic can also be concluded in the struggle of man against the forces of nature. But the main source of this category is the struggle between goodness, fracture, death and immortality, where death affirms life values, reveals the meaning of human existence, where philosophical understanding of the world takes place.

The First World War, for example, went down in history as one of the bloodiest and most brutal wars. Never (before 1914) did the opposing sides put up such huge armies for mutual destruction. The achievements of science and technology were aimed at exterminating people. During the war years, 10 million people were killed, 20 million people were injured. In addition, significant casualties were suffered by the civilian population, who died not only as a result of hostilities, but also from hunger and disease that raged during the military hard times. The war also entailed colossal material losses, gave rise to a mass revolutionary and democratic movement, the participants of which demanded a radical renewal of life.

Then, in January 1933, the fascist National Socialist Workers' Party, the party of revenge and war, came to power in Germany. Already by the summer of 1941. Germany and Italy occupied 12 European countries and extended their rule over a large part of Europe. In the occupied countries they established a fascist occupation regime, which they called the "new order": they eliminated democratic freedoms, disbanded political parties and trade unions, and banned strikes and demonstrations. Industry worked on the orders of the invaders, agriculture supplied them with raw materials and food, labor was used in the construction of military facilities. All this led to World War II, as a result of which fascism suffered a complete defeat. But in contrast to the First World War in the Second World War, most of the casualties were among the civilian population. Only in the USSR, the dead amounted to no less than 27 million people. In Germany, 12 million people were killed in concentration camps. Human. 5 million people became victims of war and repression in Western European countries. Human. To these 60 million lives lost in Europe must be added the many millions of people who died in the Pacific and other theaters of the Second World War.

No sooner had the people recovered from one world tragedy than on August 6, 1945, an American plane dropped an atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. The atomic explosion caused terrible disasters: 90% of the buildings burned down, the rest turned into ruins. Of the 306 thousand inhabitants of Hiroshima, more than 90 thousand people died immediately. Tens of thousands of people later died from wounds, burns and radiation exposure. With the explosion of the first atomic bomb, humanity received its disposal an inexhaustible source of energy and at the same time a terrible weapon capable of destroying all life.

No sooner had mankind entered the 20th century than a new wave of tragic events swept over the entire planet. These are the intensification of terrorist actions, and natural disasters, and environmental problems. Economic activity in a number of states today is so powerful that it affects the ecological situation not only within a single country, but also far beyond its borders.

Typical examples:

The UK exports 2/3 of its industrial emissions.

75-90% of the acid rain in the Scandinavian countries are of foreign origin.

Acid rain in the UK affects 2/3 of forests, and in continental Europe - about half of their areas.

The United States lacks the oxygen that is naturally produced in their territory.

The largest rivers, lakes, seas of Europe and North America are intensively polluted by industrial waste from enterprises in various countries using their water resources.

From 1950 to 1984, the production of mineral fertilizers increased from 13.5 million tons to 121 million tons per year. Their use gave 1/3 of the increase in agricultural production.

At the same time, the use of chemical fertilizers, as well as various chemical plant protection products, has sharply increased in recent decades and has become one of the most important causes of global environmental pollution. Carried by water and air over great distances, they are included in the geochemical cycle of substances throughout the Earth, often causing significant damage to nature, and to man himself. Very characteristic of our time has become a rapidly developing process of withdrawal of environmentally harmful enterprises in underdeveloped countries.

Before our eyes, the era of extensive use of the potential of the biosphere is coming to an end. This is confirmed by the following factors:

Today there is very little uncultivated land left for agriculture.

The area of ​​deserts is systematically increasing. From 1975 to 2000 it increased by 20%.

Of great concern is the reduction of the planet's forest cover. From 1950 to 2000, the area of ​​forests will decrease by almost 10%, and forests are the lungs of the whole Earth.

The exploitation of water basins, including the World Ocean, is carried out on such a scale that nature does not have time to reproduce what man takes away.

Currently, as a result of intense human activity, climate change is taking place.

Compared with the beginning of the last century, the content of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by 30%, and 10% of this increase has been achieved in the last 30 years. processes:

Melting ice;

Raising the level of the world's oceans by one meter;

Flooding of many coastal areas;

Changes in moisture exchange on the Earth's surface;

Reduced rainfall;

Change in wind direction.

It is clear that such changes will pose huge problems for people related to the management of the economy, the reproduction of the necessary conditions for their life.

Today, as rightly one of the first marks V.I.Vernadsky, mankind has gained such power in the transformation of the surrounding world that it begins to significantly influence the evolution of the biosphere as a whole.

Human economic activity in our time already entails climate change, it affects the chemical composition of the water and air basins of the Earth, the flora and fauna of the planet, and its entire appearance. And this is the tragedy of all mankind as a whole.

CONCLUSION

Tragedy is a harsh word, full of hopelessness. It carries a cold reflection of death to itself, it breathes an icy breath from it. But the consciousness of death makes a person more acutely experience all the charm and bitterness, all the joy and complexity of being. And when death is nearby, then in this “borderline” situation, all the colors of the world, its aesthetic richness, its sensual charm, the grandeur of the familiar, are clearly visible, truth and falsehood, good and evil, the very meaning of human existence.

Tragedy is always an optimistic tragedy, in which even death serves life.

So the tragic reveals:

1. death or severe suffering of a person;

2. irreparable for people of its loss;

3. immortal socially valuable beginnings, embedded in a unique individuality, and its continuation in the life of mankind;

4. higher problems of being, the social meaning of human life;

5. activity of a tragic nature in relation to circumstances;

6. philosophically meaningful state of the world;

7. historically, temporarily insoluble contradictions;

8. The tragic, embodied in art, has a cleansing effect on people.

The central problem of the tragic work is the expansion of human capabilities, the breaking of those boundaries that have historically developed, but have become tight for the most daring active people, inspired by high ideals. The tragic hero paves the way to the future, blows up the established boundaries, he is always at the forefront of the struggle of mankind, the greatest difficulties fall on his shoulders. Tragedy reveals the social meaning of life. The essence and purpose of human existence: the development of the individual should go not at the expense, but in the name of the whole society, in the name of humanity. On the other hand, the whole of society must develop in man and through man, and not in spite of him and not at his expense. Such is the highest aesthetic ideal, such is the path to a humanistic solution to the problem of man and mankind, offered by the world history of tragic art.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Borev Yu. Aesthetics. - M., 2002

2. Bychkov V.V. Aesthetics. - M., 2004

3. Divnenko O. V. Aesthetics. - M., 1995

4. Nikitich L.A. Aesthetics. - M., 2003