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The most remarkable works of ancient Egyptian art include two sculptural portraits of Queen Nefertiti (XIV century BC). Especially famous is a bust made of painted limestone, made in full size. The queen is wearing a high blue headdress, a large multi-colored necklace. The face is painted pink, the lips are red, the eyebrows are black. In the right orbit, a rock crystal eye with an ebony pupil has been preserved. A thin long neck seems to bend under the weight of the dress. The head is pushed forward a little, and this movement gives balance to the whole sculpture.

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No less beautiful is the head, intended for a small statue of the queen. Its height is 19 cm, it is made of sandstone with a warm yellow hue, well conveying the color of tanned skin. For some reason, the sculptor did not finish the work; he did not complete the ears, did not polish the surface of the stone, did not cut the orbits for the eyes. But, despite the incompleteness, the head makes a huge impression after seeing it at least once, it is already impossible to forget it, like the colored bust described above. The queen is depicted here as a young woman. Slightly smiling lips with cute dimples in the corners. The face is full of thoughtful reverie - these are the dreams of youth about future happiness, about upcoming joys, successes, dreams that are no longer in the first portrait.

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French sculptor and graphic artist. One of the most famous French sculptors. One of the founders of impressionism in sculpture. Rodin's work tends to complex symbolic images, to reveal a wide range of human emotions - from clear harmony and soft lyricism to despair and gloomy concentration. Rodin's works acquire a sketchy, as it were, unfinished character, which allows the master to create the impression of a painful birth of forms from spontaneous, amorphous matter. At the same time, Rodin always retained the plastic definiteness of forms and attached particular importance to their textural tangibility.

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"Bronze Age" O. Rodin 1876 Bronze. O. Rodin Museum. Paris. "Thinker" O. Rodin 1880 - 1900 Bronze. O. Rodin Museum. Paris.

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"Three Shadows" Around 1880 Bronze. O. Rodin Museum "Ugolino" 1882 Bronze. O. Rodin Museum

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The monument to Honore de Balzac, commissioned by the Society of Writers to Rodin, was the last major work of the sculptor. For four years, the master was looking for an image that fully corresponded to his idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe great novelist. Balzac marches wrapped in a monastic cassock, coarse, powerful, like a rock. Exhibited at the Salon of 1898, the statue caused another scandal. Rodin would make me jump with indignation ... If the truth should die, subsequent generations will break my Balzac into pieces. If the truth is not subject to destruction - I predict to you that my statue will make its way ... ". The artist turned out to be right, and in 1939 a bronze monument to Balzac was erected in Paris at the intersection of Raspail and Montparnasse boulevards.

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"Venus de Milo" The common name for the Greek marble statue of the goddess of love Aphrodite (middle 2nd century BC). Found on the island of Melos (Southern Greece). Currently stored in the Louvre ... Aphrodite (ancient Greek Ἀφροδίτη, in ancient times was interpreted as a derivative of ἀφρός - "foam") - in Greek mythology, the goddess of beauty and love, included in the number of twelve great Olympic gods. She is also the goddess of fertility, eternal spring and life. She is the goddess of marriages and even childbirth, as well as the "baby feeder". The love power of Aphrodite obeyed the gods and people; only Athena, Artemis and Hestia were beyond her control. She was ruthless to those who reject love. Wife of Hephaestus or Ares.

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Venus Capitolinus is a Roman sculpture, carved from marble, presumably in the 2nd century, modeled on the Greek statue of Aphrodite of the 4th century BC. e .. Depicts a naked woman standing next to a vessel and a robe lying on it, covering her bosom and chest with her hands (refers to the Venus Pudica type - “Modest Venus”). Found on the Viminal Hill in Rome between 1667 and 1670. Donated to the Capitoline Museum in 1754 by Pope Benedict XIV.

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"Mona Lisa" by Leonardo da Vinci K 1514 - 1515 refers to the creation of the masterpiece of the great master - "La Gioconda". Until recently, they thought that this portrait was written much earlier, in Florence, around 1503. They believed the story of Vasari, who wrote: “Leonardo undertook to complete for Francesco del Gioconde a portrait of Monna Lisa, his wife, and after working on it for four years, left it unfinished. This work is now with the French king in Fontainebleau. By the way, Leonardo resorted to the following trick: since the Madonna Lisa was very beautiful, while painting the portrait, he kept people who played the lyre or sang, and there were always jesters who kept her cheerful and removed the melancholy that is usually reported painting to performed portraits. Leonardo da Vinci - Mona Lisa. (La Gioconda, Gioconda) - Mona Lisa (La Gioconda)

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The soulful hands of Mona Lisa are as beautiful as the slight smile on her face and the primeval rocky landscape in the misty distance. Gioconda is known as the image of a mysterious, even fatal woman, but this interpretation belongs to the 19th century. It is more likely that for Leonardo this painting was the most difficult and successful exercise in the use of sfumato, and the background of the painting is the result of his research in the field of geology. Regardless of whether the subject was secular or religious, the landscape, exposing the "bones of the earth", is constantly found in the work of Leonardo

History of the sword.

In world history, the origin of the sword is hidden under the impenetrable thickness of centuries. A sword is a type of edged weapon with a straight blade, designed for chopping or chopping and stabbing, in the broadest sense - the collective name for all long bladed weapons with a straight blade.

Since ancient times, swords of various shapes have been known: short and long, wide and narrow, straight and curved, light and heavy, two-handed. In the Bronze Age, swords were made of bronze, in the Iron Age, respectively, of iron.

The sword consists of the following parts: blade, hilt, pommel and guard. The combination of the hilt, guard and pommel is called the hilt. (Fig. 1)

Garda is a detail that protects the hand of a fighter. For most medieval blades, it looks like a crosshair, but there are also cup-shaped (like a rapier), shoe-shaped (like a gladius) or even net-like guards.

The pommel (it is also the head) is the weight on the end of the sword, opposite to the blade. It usually has a more or less spherical shape. It is necessary then to balance the weapon: to shift the center of gravity of the sword from its middle closer to the hand.

What is the sword made of?

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What is a blade and a handle, it is probably not required to explain. I note that the blades differ primarily in shape, length and method of sharpening. So, for example, most European blades in the Middle Ages were double-edged and honed from the end, but this is not at all necessary. The lateral cutting-chopping edge of the blade is called the blade, and the piercing end is called the point.

For many centuries, the sword remained the most formidable and most revered type of weapon. The extraordinary popularity of the sword has its reasons. Even if a blow with a sword in terms of penetrating and destructive power cannot be compared with an ax, and the threat radius cannot be compared with a spear or an ax, the sword has several serious advantages.

A warrior with a sword is much less tired than the owner of an unbalanced weapon. A blow consumes a small fraction of the energy that is needed to swing an ax.

It is convenient to parry blows with a sword - in any case, it is more convenient than with a pole weapon, which tends to break at the same time. The sword helps its owner to defend himself. The sword is a fast weapon. Even chopping, he is still quite maneuverable. An important consequence of all this: the sword, better than many types of weapons, allows you to realize an advantage in combat technology.

Warriors of hoary antiquity and the romantic Middle Ages saw in the sword not just a strip of pointed metal that brings death, but something more - a true friend, often endowed with magical properties, and treated him respectfully, like a living being.

In the early Middle Ages, the blacksmith seemed to be an extraordinary being, close to the sorcerer, no doubt because of his ability to make weapons and forge swords.

The symbolism of the sword.

As the main type of weapon, the sword was a symbol of war, strength and power, and as the main instrument of "God's judgment" - the highest justice and justice. And these are only the most important, generally recognized symbolic meanings of the sword. For many peoples who bowed to its magical power, the sword also meant divine intelligence, insight, power, fire, light, division or death. The loss of a sword in battle was tantamount to a loss of strength, so a broken sword symbolized defeat.

IN mythology many deities are armed with formidable punishing swords. Hindu Vishnu, for example, was depicted with a flaming sword in his hands. But everyone was surpassed in this respect by Ruevit, the god of war among the Baltic Slavs: as many as seven swords hang on his belt, and the eighth is raised in his right hand.

One of the ancient Greek legends gave rise to a new symbolic meaning of the sword. A certain Damocles, a favorite of the Syracusan tyrant Dionysius, once openly envied the wealth, power and happiness of his patron. To give Damocles a real idea of ​​the position and fate of the monarchs, Dionysius switched places with him for one day. During the feast, Damocles was seated in the royal place, but a sword was hung over his head on a horsehair. It was then that the envious realized all the illusory nature of the happiness of the crowned bearers. Since then, the expression "sword of Damocles" has become a symbol of impending, threatening danger.

IN heroic epic swords are necessarily endowed with magical power. A special place in folklore is occupied by the treasurer sword, the self-seeder is a wonderful weapon that ensures victory over enemies. But it is very difficult to get such a sword: you must first find it somewhere far away, in a burial mound, and then endure a hard fight with the ghost of the former owner of the sword. Ilya Muromets had to defeat the hero Svyatogor - a gigantic giant who propped up the sky with his head in order to take possession of his treasure sword. The German hero Beowulf rushed into a deep pool, where a terrible woman monster was waiting for him, and in an underwater lair he found a sword of giants glowing from the inside, with the help of which the brave hero struck down a monstrous enemy, invulnerable to conventional weapons. Siegfried killed 700 Nibelungs, two giants and defeated the evil dwarf Albrich in a difficult duel before the wonderful sword Balmung was in his hands.

Enchanted swords are not given to anyone other than those for whom they are intended. Only Arthur, heir to King Uther Pendragon of Britain, succeeds in extracting the enchanted sword from the anvil. The sword of the tragically deceased knight Balin was imprisoned by the magician Merlin in a piece of marble, and no one, except for the sinless knight Galahad, to whom it was intended, could extract it from the stone with any effort.

Sometimes magic swords were a gift from the gods or powerful spirits. King Arthur received Excalibur directly from the hands of the Lady of the Lake. Not only the sword itself, but also its scabbard were endowed with miraculous properties: the one who wore them in battle could not lose a single drop of blood.

The swords, animated by the power of magic, behaved like intelligent living beings. Inciting the owner to fight or revenge, they rang and broke out of their sheaths themselves, not agreeing to return back until they tasted the enemy's blood. Anticipating the death of the owner, the sword grew dull and covered with bloody sweat. If the knight committed an act that stained his honor, the sword, refusing to serve the unworthy, rusted, broke, or simply fell out of his hands.

The sword usually served the owner until his death. The dying, bleeding knight broke the sword so that it would “die” with him and not get to the enemy. Mortally wounded, Arthur orders his comrade-in-arms to throw Excalibur into the waters of a magical lake. Roland, sensing the approach of death, tries to break Durendal against the stones, but his magnificent sword does not even blunt, bouncing off granite blocks with a ringing sound, and then the frantic knight falls on the sword and, covering it with his own body, dies. However, sometimes the legendary sword, anticipating a meeting with a new hero and new amazing feats, stubbornly refuses to die and waits in the wings in a burial mound or in a deep dark cave.

IN religions, especially in Christianity, sometimes the most unexpected symbolic interpretations are given to the sword. So, in Revelation, a double-edged sword, as a symbol of divine wisdom and truth, comes out ... from the mouth of Christ himself. In the Book of Genesis, the fiery sword of the biblical cherub guarding the road to Eden is a symbol of purification. The sword is clutched in the hand by one of the horsemen of the Apocalypse, personifying the war.

In Buddhism, the sword is seen as a symbolic weapon of wisdom, cutting off ignorance. In China, a sword in the hands of guardian gods is considered a talisman for the whole family: on New Year's Eve, the Chinese hang posters with images of such gods on the doors of their houses.

In Western European iconography, where the sword appears primarily as an instrument of martyrdom, it is an attribute of many saints. The sword pierces the chest of St. Justina, Euphemia and Peter the Martyr, the neck of Lucia and Agnes, the head of Thomas Becket and the book in the hands of St. Boniface, also fallen by the sword. The image of the Virgin Mary closes this sad row, whose chest is pierced by seven swords at once - the seven sorrows of the Mother of God.

Perhaps, in the hands of only one Catholic saint, Martin of Tours, the sword has a completely different semantic meaning. According to church tradition, Martin, who met a soaked and chilled traveler on the road, cut his cloak in half with a sword to shelter the poor man from bad weather. In this case, the sword is a symbol of separation, participation and goodness.

In Byzantine Orthodoxy, Roman warriors-great martyrs, defenders of the Christian faith, are especially revered: Artemy of Antioch, Dmitry of Thessalonica, Mercury, Theodore Tiron, John the Warrior. All of them were depicted with a sword in their hand or at their waist. Armed with a sword and the most warlike of the divine retinue - the archangel Gabriel.

In the Russian Orthodox Church, with a sword, symbolizing protection, defense, princes can be depicted - the defenders of the Russian land: George (Yuri) Vsevolodovich, who fell in the battle with the Tatars on the City River (1238), Mstislav the Brave, Alexander Nevsky, Dmitry Donskoy and others, and also martyr princes slain by the sword: Boris and Gleb.

IN fine arts Pohi of the Renaissance, the sword as an attribute is characteristic of a number of figures that allegorically represent human feelings: Courage, Firmness, Anger, Justice, Moderation and Despair. In the last two, he is depicted in a special way: the sword of Temperance is sheathed, which are firmly tied to the hilt to make it difficult to extract it; and for Despair, represented as a woman throwing herself on her own sword, it serves as an instrument of suicide.

IN heraldry the sword emblem may symbolize supreme military authority or justice. The military heraldic sword is usually depicted naked, blade up, except when it is placed in the coat of arms in memory of the fallen - then the sword is pointed at the ground.

In our country, the "punishing sword of the revolution", put into the hands of the employees of the Cheka, then passed to the GPU and the NKVD. In the Stalin era, this sword, which had lost all connection with the principle of socialist legality, turned into an instrument of mass terror. Before the Great Patriotic War, the emblem of a sword cutting a snake adorned the chevron of the Smersh military counterintelligence (“Death to spies!”). In the post-war period, the emblem depicting a shield with two crossed swords became the hallmark of employees of the Ministry of Justice.

In the Middle Ages in Western Europe and Japan there was a real cult of the sword. The main weapon of the knight and samurai gradually acquired a ritual and ceremonial significance. The symbolic birth of a knight was accompanied at the initiation by the triple contact of the sword with the shoulder of the candidate. The whole further life of the knight was inextricably linked with the sword: in battle, the sword served him as a weapon, on the way, the cross-shaped hilt of a sword stuck into the ground became a symbolic crucifix. The sword was an instrument of justice during the "God's judgment" and an instrument of retribution in the execution of death sentences. From the XIII-XIV centuries, the sword, as a symbol of the supreme military power of monarchs, became one of the royal, imperial and princely regalia.

Sword of Victory.

Few people know that one of the most famous and lofty Soviet sculptures - “The Motherland is Calling!”, which is installed in Volgograd on Mamaev Kurgan, is only the second part of the composition, which consists of three elements at once. This triptych (a work of art, consisting of three parts and united by a common idea) also includes the monuments: “Rear to Front”, which is installed in Magnitogorsk and “Warrior-Liberator”, located in Treptow Park in Berlin. All three sculptures are united by one common element - the Sword of Victory.

Two of the three monuments of the triptych are “The Warrior-Liberator” and “The Motherland Calls!” - belong to the hand of one master, monumental sculptor Evgeny Viktorovich Vuchetich, who three times in his work addressed the theme of the sword.

The sculptor himself commented on his adherence to the image of the sword: “I only turned to the sword three times - one sword was raised to the sky by the Motherland on Mamayev Kurgan, calling on her sons to drive out the fascist barbarians trampling on Soviet soil. The second sword is held with the point down by our victorious Warrior in Treptow Park in Berlin, who cut the swastika and liberated the peoples of Europe. The third sword is being forged by a man into a plow, expressing the desire of people of good will to fight for disarmament in the name of the triumph of peace on the planet.”

The historical sequence was different. First, the Victorious Warrior was erected (1946-1949, together with the architect Ya.B. Belopolsky), the Motherland was erected on Mamaev Kurgan in 1963-1967 with the same Belopolsky and a group), and the third monument of Vuchetich, which does not apply to this series, was installed in New York in front of the UN Headquarters in 1957. The composition entitled “Let's beat swords into plowshares” shows us a worker who turns a sword into a plow. The sculpture itself was supposed to symbolize the desire of all the people of the world to fight for disarmament and the triumph of peace on Earth.

Monument "Rear - Front"

Figure 2

The first part of the trilogy "Rear to Front", located in Magnitogorsk, symbolizes the Soviet rear, which ensured the country's victory in the Great Patriotic War. The reasons why Magnitogorsk was given such an honor - to become the first Russian city in which a monument to home front workers was erected, should not surprise anyone. According to statistics, every second tank and every third shell during the war years was fired from Magnitogorsk steel

The authors of this monument were the sculptor Lev Golovnitsky and the architect Yakov Belopolsky. Two main materials were used to create the monument - granite and bronze. The height of the monument is 15 meters, while outwardly it looks much more impressive. This effect is created by the fact that the monument is located on a high hill. The central part of the monument is a composition that consists of two figures: a worker and a soldier. On the sculpture, a worker hands over a sword to a Soviet soldier. It is understood that this is the Sword of Victory, which was forged and raised in the Urals. The worker is oriented to the east (in the direction where the Magnitogorsk Iron and Steel Works was located), and the warrior looks to the west. Where the main fighting took place during the Great Patriotic War. The rest of the monument in Magnitogorsk is an eternal flame, which was made in the form of a flower star made of granite.

An artificial hill was erected on the bank of the river to install the monument, the height of which was 18 meters (the base of the hill was specially reinforced with reinforced concrete piles so that it could withstand the weight of the erected monument and not collapse over time). The monument was made in Leningrad, and in 1979 it was installed on the spot. The monument was also supplemented with two man-height trapeziums, on which the names of the inhabitants of Magnitogorsk, who received the title of Hero of the Soviet Union during the war, were listed. In 2005, another part of the monument was opened. This time the composition was supplemented by two triangles, on which you can read the names of all the inhabitants of Magnitogorsk who died during the hostilities in 1941-1945 (a little more than 14 thousand names are listed in total).

In the sculpture, a worker hands over a sword to a Soviet soldier. It is understood that this is the Sword of Victory, which was forged and raised in the Urals, later it was raised by the “Motherland” in Volgograd. The city in which there was a radical turning point in the war, and Nazi Germany suffered one of its most significant defeats. The third monument of the “Warrior-Liberator” series lowers the Sword of Victory in the very lair of the enemy - in Berlin.

Monument "Motherland is calling!"

Figure 3

Later, this sword forged in the rear will lift up in Volgograd on Mamaev Kurgan "Motherland". In the place where there was a turning point in the Great Patriotic War. This sculpture was designed by sculptor E. V. Vuchetich and engineer N. V. Nikitin. The sculpture on Mamaev Kurgan is a figure of a woman standing with a sword raised up. This monument is a collective allegorical image of the Motherland, which calls on everyone to unite in order to defeat the enemy.

Monument "Motherland is calling!" is the compositional center of the monument-ensemble "To the Heroes of the Battle of Stalingrad", which is located on Mamayev Kurgan. N.S. Khrushchev, approving the project of the monument-ensemble, demanded that the sculpture of the Motherland be higher than the American Statue of Liberty. As a result, Vuchetich had to abandon the original sculpture project - a relatively low figure of the Motherland with a folded banner in his hand. As a result, the height of the sculpture is 52 meters, and the length of the sword is 33 meters.

Initially, the 33-meter sword, which weighed 14 tons, was made of stainless steel in a titanium sheath. But the huge size of the statue led to a strong swaying of the sword, this was especially noticeable in windy weather. As a result of such impacts, the structure gradually deformed, the sheets of titanium plating began to shift, and when the structure swayed, an unpleasant metal rattle appeared. To eliminate this phenomenon, in 1972 the reconstruction of the monument was organized. In the course of the work, the blade of the sword was replaced with another one, which was made of fluorinated steel, with holes made in the upper part, which were supposed to reduce the effect of the windage of the structure.

Motherland crowns a huge hill above the Square of Sorrow in Volgograd. The mound is a bulk mound, about 14 meters high, the remains of 34,505 soldiers - the defenders of Stalingrad - are buried in it. A serpentine path leads to the top of the hill to the Motherland, along which there are 35 granite tombstones of the Heroes of the Soviet Union, participants in the Battle of Stalingrad. From the foot of the mound to its top, the serpentine consists of exactly 200 granite steps 15 cm high and 35 cm wide - according to the number of days of the Battle of Stalingrad. In addition to the figure of the Motherland, a complex of memorial sculptural compositions, as well as a hall of memory, are located near the mound.

Upon completion of the grandiose works of E.V. Vuchetich admitted: “Now the ensemble is completed. Behind this - fifteen years of searching and doubts, sadness and joy, rejected and found solutions. What did we want to say to people with this monument on the historical Mamaev Kurgan, on the site of bloody battles and immortal deeds? We tried to convey, first of all, the indestructible morale of the Soviet soldiers, from selfless devotion to the Motherland.

The monument to the heroes of the Battle of Stalingrad is a monument to the greatest historical event. This is a monument to the mass of heroes. And therefore we were looking for large-scale, especially monumental solutions and forms that, in our opinion, would allow us to most fully convey the scope of mass heroism

Monument “Warrior-Liberator”

Figure 4

And already at the end of the composition, “Warrior-Liberator” will lower the sword on the swastika in the very center of Germany, in Berlin, completing the defeat of the fascist regime. A beautiful, concise and very logical composition that unites the three most famous Soviet monuments dedicated to the Great Patriotic War.

The thirteen-meter bronze figure of a soldier personifies the Soviet Army, which took up arms with a holy goal - to liberate their homeland from the invaders, to destroy fascism, which threatened humanity with enslavement, to protect the peaceful labor of people all over the earth. The figure of a young warrior breathes indestructible strength. A small child trustingly clung to the chest of a good giant. The ancient sword with which the warrior cut the swastika is a symbol of the protection of a just and noble cause, a symbol of the struggle for people to live happily, so that they work calmly, without fear that the fiery storm of war will again sweep over the earth. The statue of the warrior-liberator is perfectly perceived from all sides, which is facilitated by its slight turn. The verticals of the cloak thrown over give the figure the necessary stability. The basis of the monument is a green mound, reminiscent of ancient burial mounds. This brings another note to the national melody of the entire ensemble. A bright pedestal of a figure rises on the mound, inside of which a mausoleum is built - the solemn completion of the entire ensemble.

On May 8, 1949, on the eve of the fourth anniversary of the victory over Nazi Germany, a solemn opening of a monument to Soviet soldiers who died during the storming of the German capital took place in Berlin. The monument "Warrior-Liberator" was installed in Berlin's Treptow Park. Its sculptor was E. V. Vuchetich, and the architect was Ya. B. Belopolsky. The height of the warrior sculpture itself was 12 meters, its weight is 70 tons. This monument has become a symbol of the victory of the Soviet people in the Great Patriotic War, it also personifies the liberation of all European peoples from fascism

The sculpture of a soldier was made in the spring of 1949 in Leningrad at the Monumental Sculpture factory, it consisted of 6 parts, which were then transported to Germany. Work on the creation of the memorial complex in Berlin was completed in May 1949. On May 8, 1949, the memorial was solemnly opened by the Soviet commandant of Berlin, Major General A. G. Kotikov.

The monument to Soviet soldiers in the center of Europe will always remind people of the sacred duty of everyone - to tirelessly fight for peace on earth.

CONCLUSION

In modern society, the sword is both a weapon and a cultural symbol, which is reflected in a variety of semantic forms and guises.

The study is devoted to clarifying the reason and the need for such an invariable presence of the sword symbol, the main focus of which is expressed in the question: “what gives such an archaic object to a person in the modern information society and why its presence in culture is inescapable, not only as a weapon.”

The belonging of the sword to culture is due to its presence in all cultural genres and in the repositories of cultural memory. The loss of the utilitarian meaning of the sword did not stop its presence in cultural forms, but determined its existence as a symbol.

The sword is one of the most complex and most common symbols. On the one hand, the sword is a formidable weapon that brings life or death, on the other hand, it is an ancient and powerful force that arose simultaneously with the Cosmic Balance and was its opposite. The sword is also a powerful magical symbol, the emblem of witchcraft. In addition, the sword is a symbol of power, justice, supreme justice, all-pervading reason, insight, phallic strength, light. The sword of Damocles is a symbol of fate. A broken sword is a defeat. Thus, the sword, having left the practical reality, nevertheless, lives in the reality of a fairly large number of people as a symbol and an artifact. Its meaning and role at the sign level practically does not change.

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The art of each era has its own language of symbols and allegories. In an allegorical form, it revealed the ideas and concepts that worried this or that society, reflected the views of the classes that were in power. The turning points in the development of various countries, the change of social formations gave birth to new figurative symbols and allegories.

As an example, one can cite Russia in the 18th century, where the transformations of Peter the Great necessitated the embodiment of many new concepts and ideas in allegorical images. In this regard, by order of Peter, the collection "Symbols and Emblems" was published in 1705, containing a large number of images with explanatory inscriptions. The need for such a book was so great that it went through three editions over the course of a century. The same role was played even by stove tiles with corresponding images. The great revolutionary upheaval that led to the fall of the feudal system in France led to an appeal to antiquity, in which artists drew folk, democratic images that could convey the thoughts and feelings experienced by the insurgent people. If in the early painting by L. David “The Oath of the Horatii” the struggle for the freedom of the motherland was expressed in an allegorical form in the images of antiquity, then the “La Marseillaise” by F. Ryud on the Arc de Triomphe in Paris recreates all the pathos, all the greatness of the revolutionary impulse of the people with more modern means, although in the forms of the entire group, much still goes back to the same antiquity. But we are interested not so much in the formation and development of allegorical and symbolic images in the art of the past, as in their emergence and existence in our Soviet contemporary art, especially in sculpture.

When the Soviet state was formed, the hammer and sickle, symbols of labor and unity of the working class and peasantry, were included in its coat of arms. These objects, taken from reality, spoke about the nature of the labor activity of the victorious people. The vital, effective nature of the laconic emblem, which has a memorable decorative silhouette, as it were, set the necessary tone for the symbolic images of those years.

However, in subsequent years, the attitude towards allegory and symbol inexplicably changed. One could hear that allegory and symbol are alien to Soviet art, that the growth of scientific knowledge, the development and deepening of realism have limited their place and role in our art, or even made them simply superfluous. V. Mukhina spoke out against such judgments, practically proving the necessity of the existence in our art, in particular in sculpture, of both allegory and symbols. “From the life of thinking and language,” she said, “one cannot throw out the concept and representation. The concept is not always figurative. Since abstract concepts are not characteristic of sculptural art, it forces the widespread use of personification, allegory. Justice, strength, thought, agriculture, fertility, courage, kindness, etc., etc. - all these concepts are not figurative, but to convey them nunsho, without them, thought becomes impoverished. It is very difficult to convey all these concepts in sculpture, since it operates only with the human body and objects. Therefore, naturally, here we can only speak in the language of personification - allegory. At the same time, according to V. Mukhina, "the allegorical form is the most powerful figurative expression of fine art, because the artist is free to choose external data that meets his task." Mukhina in her practical activities followed her judgments. In the allegorical sculptural group "Worker and Collective Farm Girl" she embodied a whole range of ideas: the revolutionary impulse, the movement, and the youth of our republics. The hammer and sickle - the symbols of the Soviet country - seemed to overshadow the excellent plastic and at the same time decorative work imbued with genuine pathos. It is the decorativeness of the form, directly dictated by the idea of ​​the work, the emotional force of the impact, appealing to the feelings of the audience, that allows the artist not only to most sharply and fully convey the whole depth of the idea, but also to express the feelings and thoughts of the Soviet people. At the same time, the emotional impact is achieved not by abstract gestures and postures, but by a moderately realistic system of both the entire group as a whole and its details. Here one should pay attention even to the position of the steps of the legs of the statues, to the nature of the hands thrown back, etc. Everything is taken by the sculptor from reality, noticed by the artist in life and translated into a sculptural form. Mukhina realized her plan by realistic means, retaining that measure of conventionality that is necessary for any allegorical work and which protects it from naturalism.

For all the modernity of the images, for all the realism of the figures, the general character of their postures and gestures is conditional, just as the hammer and sickle raised up by their hands, symbols of the Soviet state, are conditional. This convention does not cause the slightest feeling of protest; in a sense, it is natural, because it reflects our feelings, although in reality, in life, we are unlikely to meet with such gestures and postures.

Mukhina was not alone in her noble but difficult quest. Here we should remember I. Shadra. In The Liberated East, the artist was still in the grip of a speculative understanding of the allegorical work. His work, created in the manner of ancient Egyptian sculpture, has not yet embodied modern concepts, feelings and images. However, when Shadr undertook the creation of a monument to Lenin on the dam of ZAGES, he performed something more than a monumental portrait of the founder of the Soviet state. This is not only the image of the inspirer of the electrification of the country - the figure of Lenin grows into a powerful symbolic image of the Builder of the whole country, its Creator, the Conqueror of the forces of nature, directed from now on to meet the needs of the people. The generalized meaning inherent in the Shadr monument determined the artistic and plastic qualities of this outstanding work. It should also be pointed out to the decorative expressiveness of the gesture and posture of the figure, which can be defined by a short full force formula - "let it be!" At the same time, they are, of course, different from those in Mukhina's group, but they also play a primary role in the overall design. The conventionality of posture and gesture, as if passed through the prism of the decorative beginning, in turn deepens the figurative meaning of the monument.

Decorativeness and the well-known conventionality of postures and gestures combined with it are the necessary qualities of allegorical works. Their character in Soviet sculpture is inextricably linked, first of all, with the modernity of the image, with life itself, with the individual manner of a person of today to behave, with his tread, with his movements. The works of Shadr and Mukhina convincingly testify to this. We see similar properties in other works by Mukhina, for example, in groups intended to decorate the Moskvoretsky Bridge, some of them were made according to the sketches of the artist in bronze by N. Zelenskaya, Z. Ivanova and A. Sergeev. These groups, by the way, should have been installed long ago in the places provided for them. The position of the figures here is arbitrary, but at the same time, how much vitality is in the way the girls hold the sheaf over their heads, in the character of the movement of the fisherman, who grabbed a large catfish, in the admiring contemplation of the feminine girl of the fruits collected in the basket, which the young man is holding! Everything is subtly noticed by the artist in life and conveyed in decorative allegorical images that attract us with their plasticity, beauty of lines and completeness of the composition.

Neither Shadr nor Mukhina forgot that their works, embodying large and deep concepts in an allegorical form, must have a bright, eye-catching decorative effect, emotionality and beauty of forms. The Georgian craftsman V. Topuridze, who made the statue of "Victory" for the pediment of the theater in Chiatura, did not forget about this either. In a wide-stepping female figure with outstretched arms raised, boundless joy, intoxication with freedom are embodied, moreover, the pose and gesture of the figure seem to symbolize the liberation of the whole world, she appeals to all mankind - in her hands it is like "the whole globe, from which the shackles fell enmity, enmity, tyranny.The artistic qualities of the sculpture are such that it can be freely compared with the figure of the Marseillaise by F. Ryud, and comparison with the statue of E. Vuchetich on the same theme from the Volgograd memorial clearly indicates on which side the height of the artistic embodiment is.

Symbolism of the pyramid

The pyramid completes the entire architectural composition of the royal burial. But why did the pyramid become the place of the last refuge?

The ancient Greeks began to call this huge tomb a pyramid. That is what they call it today. The word itself comes from a geometric definition. The Egyptians called the pyramid "Mer", this word comes from the verb "iar", which means to rise, and denotes the place of ascension. Thus, the step pyramid served as a huge staircase, along which the deceased pharaoh ascended to heaven.

The pyramids of the IV and V dynasties are closely connected with the cult of the Sun, they were considered symbols of light, the power of the Sun. The pyramids could also be identified with the Sun itself. The top of the pyramid was usually represented by a small pyramid, the so-called "pyramidon". Only one such pyramidon has survived to this day. This is the top of the pyramid of Amenemhat III. It is carved from black granite. A winged solar disk is depicted on its faces. The top of the obelisk also has the shape of a pyramid; this is the most sacred part of the structure.

The pyramid symbolizes the path to heaven and is identified with a ray of the sun falling on the earth.

Sculpture

Sculpture developed in close connection with architecture. The main images were the images of the reigning pharaohs. Although the needs of a religious cult required the creation of images of numerous gods, the image of a deity, often with the heads of animals and birds, did not become central in Egyptian sculpture.

One such god is Anubis.

(Statues of Anubis)

There are many different statues with his image, but I will opt for the Stele of the "royal scribe", "fan-bearer on the right hand" of King Tutankhamen, "the great manager of the royal household" Ipi. Almost the entire surface of the limestone slab is occupied by the scene of the worship of the dignitary Ipi to the statue of the god of embalming and patron of the dead Anubis. On the left, the jackal-headed Anubis sits on a throne. With his right hand, Anubis holds the sign of life "ankh" by the loop, he holds out his left hand with the wand "was" towards Ipi walking towards him. The god Anubis in Egyptian mythology is considered the patron god of the dead. He was depicted as a lying black jackal, a wild dog, or as a man with the head of a jackal or a dog. Anubis was considered the judge of the gods. The center of the cult of Anubis was the city of the 17th nome of Kas - the Greek Kinopolis, in translation means "the city of the dog." However, his veneration very early spread throughout Egypt. During the period of the Old Kingdom, Anubis was considered the god of the dead, his main epithets are "Khentiamenti", that is, the one who is ahead of the country of the West (the kingdom of the dead), "the lord of Rasetau" and "standing in front of the hall of the gods." According to the Pyramid Texts, Anubis was the chief god in the realm of the dead. He counted the hearts of the dead, while Osiris - the god of the dead and reviving nature - mainly personified the deceased pharaoh, who came to life like a god. From the end of the 3rd millennium BC. e. the functions of Anubis pass to Osiris, who was assigned his epithets, and Anubis enters the circle of gods associated with the mysteries of Osiris.

Together with Thoth present at the trial of Osiris. One of the most important functions of Anubis was to prepare the body of the deceased for embalming and turning it into a mummy. Anubis was attributed to the laying on of hands on the mummy and the transformation of the deceased with the help of magic into ah ("enlightened", "blessed"), who comes to life thanks to this gesture. Anubis placed children around Horus, who had died in the burial chamber, and gave each a canopy with the entrails of the deceased for their protection. Anubis is closely associated with the necropolis at Thebes, the seal of which depicts a jackal lying over nine captives. Anubis was considered the brother of the god Bata. According to Plutarch, Anubis was the son of Osiris and Nephthys. The ancient Greeks identified Anubis with Hermes.

Of much greater importance was the development of the type of earthly ruler, and over time, other, more ordinary people.

In the Old Kingdom, strictly defined types of statues are produced:

Standing with the extended left leg and lowered arms, pressed to the body, as, for example, the statue of Ranofer. He is depicted walking with his arms lowered along his body and his head raised; everything in this sculpture is sustained within the framework of the canon - pose, attire, coloring, overdeveloped muscles of a motionless body, an indifferent gaze directed into the distance.

• (Statue of Ranofer)
• - sitting, with hands folded in front, as, for example, a statue of the royal scribe Kai. Before us is a confidently outlined face with characteristic thin, tightly compressed lips of a large mouth, protruding cheekbones, and a slightly flat nose. This face is enlivened by eyes made of various materials: in a bronze shell, corresponding in shape to the orbit and at the same time forming the edges of the eyelids, pieces of alabaster for the white of the eye and rock crystal for the pupil are inserted, and a small piece of polished ebony is placed under the crystal. , thanks to which that brilliant point is obtained, which gives special vivacity to the pupil, and at the same time to the whole eye. Such a method of depicting eyes, generally characteristic of the sculptures of the Old Kingdom, gives vitality to the face of the statue. The eyes of the scribe Kai, as it were, follow the viewer inseparably, no matter where he is in the hall. This statue strikes with the veracity of working out not only the face, but also the entire body of the collarbones, fatty, flabby muscles of the chest and abdomen, so characteristic of a person leading a sedentary lifestyle. The modeling of hands with long fingers, knees, back is also magnificent.

(Statue of Scribe Kai)

All are characterized by the following artistic techniques: the figures are built with strict observance of frontality and symmetry; the head is set straight and the gaze is directed forward; figures are inextricably linked with the block from which they are carved, which is emphasized by the preservation of a part of this block as a background; the statues were painted: the body of male figures - reddish-brown, female - yellow, clothes - white, hair - black. The main character is solemn monumentality and tranquility.

During the period of the Middle Kingdom, the masters overcome the idea of ​​cold grandeur, and the faces of the pharaohs acquire individual features. In the depiction of common people, the shackling influence of the canons is overcome, as a result of which the images become individual. In addition to round sculpture, the Egyptians willingly turned to relief. A canon was gradually created: the main "hero" was depicted larger than the rest, his figure was conveyed in a double plan: head and legs in profile, shoulders and chest - in front. The figures were usually painted. There are works that are characterized by grace and harmony. The harmony of the lines of the arms and legs, the finer coloring of the clothes with patterns, the diminutiveness of the figures are the characteristic stylistic devices of the works of the Middle Kingdom.

The sharp authority and tension of the features of the rulers intensified. The portrait head of Senusret III (19th century BC, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art) with sunken eyes, sharp arches of eyebrows and sharpened cheekbones, highlighted by the brilliance of smoothly polished dark obsidian, testifies to the complication of the human image. The contrasts of light and shadow are more strongly emphasized, bitter folds run along the sides of the mouth.

(Portrait head of Senusret III)

The same force in face modeling and interest in conveying the character of a person is felt in the portrait head of Amenemhat III (19th century BC, Cairo, Museum)

The Egyptians use new techniques - the contrast between the immobility of the pose and the lively expressiveness of a carefully designed face (deep-seated eyes, traced facial muscles and skin folds) and a sharp play of chiaroscuro (statues of Senusret III and Amenemhat III). Genre scenes are popular in wooden folk sculpture: a plowman with bulls, a detachment of warriors; they are distinguished by spontaneity and truthfulness.

The craving for the colossal can also be traced in the sculpture of the New Kingdom. In front of the entrance to the temple of Amenhotep III, on the outskirts of Thebes, huge sitting statues of the pharaoh were installed from solid blocks of red sandstone, about 20 m high. Art takes on forms and features never seen before. A striking feature of these monuments is their enormous scale, combined with public, monumental volumes. Now the sculpture has acquired a shade of gigantomania. Portraits appear. Here is Akhenaten himself - a narrow face with slanted eyes, a large irregularly shaped head, short and thin legs. His portraits are made with amazing psychological authenticity. Often the pharaoh is depicted in a homely, relaxed atmosphere, against the backdrop of enchanting landscapes.

The most remarkable works of ancient Egyptian art include two sculptural portraits of Queen Nefertiti (XIV century BC). Especially famous is a bust made of painted limestone, life-size. The queen is wearing a high blue headdress, a large colored necklace. The face is painted pink, the lips are red, the eyebrows are black. In the right orbit, a rock crystal eye with an ebony pupil has been preserved. A thin long neck seems to bend under the weight of the dress. The head is pushed forward a little, which gives balance to the whole sculpture.

(Sculptural portrait of Nefertiti)

It is enough to look at the face of the queen to understand that we have before us the work of a brilliant sculptor. The subtlety with which the sculptor conveyed the shape of the cheeks, lips, chin, and neck is amazing.

Wide heavy eyelids slightly close the eyes, giving the face an expression of concentrated contemplation and slight fatigue. The sculptor managed to convey the traces of the past years, disappointments, some difficult experiences. Perhaps the portrait was created after the death of one of the daughters of Nefertiti, Princess Maketaton.

No less beautiful is the head, intended for a small statue of the queen. Its height is 19 cm, it is made of sandstone with a warm yellow hue, well conveying the color of tanned skin. For some reason, the sculptor did not finish the work: he did not finish the ears, did not polish the surface of the stone, did not cut the orbits for the eyes. But, despite the incompleteness, the head makes a huge impression: having seen it at least once, it is already impossible to forget it, like the colored bust described above. The queen is depicted here as a young woman. Slightly smiling lips with cute dimples in the corners. The face is full of thoughtful daydreaming - these are the dreams of youth about future happiness, about upcoming joys, successes, dreams that are no longer in the first portrait.

And here is the same amazing ease in the transfer of forms, volume, the same mean selection of features. To appreciate the genius of the sculptor, the head must be slowly turned, and then, under changing lighting, new, barely marked details come out, giving the monument that vitality that distinguishes the work of the master.

By a happy coincidence, we know his name: both portraits of Nefertiti were found during excavations at the workshop of the sculptor Thutmes in El Amarna. On one of the objects of this workshop it is written that Thutmes was praised by the pharaoh and that he was the head of the work. Thus, we can conclude that Thutmes was the leading sculptor of his time. And this is undoubtedly confirmed by his works.

The walls of the temples were covered with reliefs and paintings. The relief from Memphis "Weepers" is permeated with a restless rhythm, expressed in the flexible movements of the hands, now stretched forward, then thrown up.

This relief was created in the era of the 19th dynasty in Memphis. The "mourners" are located along the frieze, as in the old days, but there is no former parallelism of the figures, the uniformity of the intervals. Now it is not a procession, but a crowd; the figures are crowded, mixed, their rhythm has become more complicated - some are bent, others are falling to the ground, others are thrown back. There is no longer flattening: each figure has only one shoulder. What could be more expressive, more dramatic than these outstretched, twisted, flexible arms raised to the sky? Expression is felt in the very movements of the artist's chisel, nervous and impetuous. The relief does not rise above the background, it is cut into the surface, and some lines are very deeply deepened, emphasized, others are drawn easily - this is how a restless play of shadows is achieved and the feeling of spatial complexity of the composition is enhanced.

(Relief "Weepers")

Such things were the last word of Egyptian realism. This monument is unsurpassed in terms of the power of conveying human feelings, where the entire group of mourners is united by a common mood, expressed in postures, gestures and facial expressions. Not a single figure repeats another: in grief, the hands are either raised to the sky, or stretched out on the ground, or broken above the head. The artist achieves in this scene an enormous dramatic tension. It should be noted that Theban masters took part in the work on many of the tombs of Memphis, which led to the convergence of the style of these two centers.

The development of plastics is inextricably linked with Gothic architecture. Sculpture occupied the first place in the fine arts of that time. It enhanced the emotionality and spectacle of Gothic architecture, it most clearly manifested the desire for a sensually poetic, pictorial embodiment not only of the religious ideas of the time, but also of nature naively deified by man and himself as its perfect product. The Gothic cathedral was especially richly decorated, which Victor Hugo figuratively compared with a giant book. The main place in its external and internal decorative decoration belonged to the statue and relief. The compositional and ideological design of the sculptural decoration was subordinated to the program developed by theologians.

Prophet Jeremiah

Prophet Daniel

Well of the Prophets

Claus Sluter, Well of the Prophets, 1395-1406, Champmol Monastery, Dijon, France

In the temple, embodying, as before, the image of the universe, the religious history of mankind with its sublime and base sides, with its life complexity, was now most expanded in visible sensual forms. Thousands of statues and reliefs were made in the workshops at the cathedrals. Many generations of artists and apprentices often took part in their creation. Portals became the focus of sculptural compositions, where large statues of apostles, prophets, and saints were arranged in rows, as if meeting visitors. Tympanums, arches of portals, gaps between them, galleries of the upper tiers, niches of turrets, wimpergi were decorated with high reliefs, decorative reliefs and statues. Many small figures and separate scenes were placed in transepts, on consoles, plinths, pedestals, buttresses, and roofs. The capitals and cornices were filled with images of birds, leaves, flowers, various fruits, along the ledges of the cornices, the ribs of the turrets, the flying buttresses, half-opened stone leaves (crabs) ran exactly along the spiers, the spiers were crowned with a flower (cruciferous). All these ornamental motifs, as it were, breathed a sense of the life of nature into architectural forms. Such an abundance of floral ornamentation is not found in other architectural styles.

Gothic sculpture is an organic part of the architecture of the cathedral. It is included in the architectural design, is part of the functional elements of the building. In Reims Cathedral, it even determines its appearance. The interaction of architecture with sculpture and painting gave rise to that unique variety of impressions with which Gothic enriched contemporaries. The statues retain the closest connection with the wall, with the support. Figures of elongated proportions, as it were, echo the vertical divisions of architecture, obeying the dynamic rhythm of the whole, forming a single architectural and sculptural ensemble. Their dimensions were in exact proportion to the architectural forms and depended on the location established by the religious canons. In Gothic architecture, not only did the degree of subordination of sculpture to architecture increase, but the independent significance of sculpture also rose. Gothic continued the separation of the human image from the general decorative decoration begun by the Romanesque sculptors. The interpretation of the artistic form has become freer, the role of statuary round plasticity, its interaction with the surrounding spatial and light-air environment has increased. The statues were often separated from the wall, placed in niches on separate pedestals. Light bends, turns of the torsos and transfer of the weight of the body to one leg, characteristic lively poses and gestures give the figures a dynamism that somewhat breaks the vertical architectural rhythm of the cathedral.

Santa Reparata
Museo del Duomo, Florence

Santa's Cathedral Campanile
Maria del Fiore, 1337–1343

Hope, 1330
Baptistery, Florence

Sculptor and architect Andrea Pisano, doors of the Florence Baptistery, reliefs and statues of the Florence Cathedral

The drapery of clothes, emphasizing the plasticity and flexibility of the human body, its life in a spatial environment, gave great emotional expressiveness to the statues. The folds have acquired a natural weight; sinking deep, they gave rise to a rich play of light and shadow, sometimes likened to the flutes of columns, then formed tense sharp breaks, then flowed in light streams, then fell in stormy free cascades, as if echoing human experiences. Often a body was visible through thin clothes, the beauty of which began to be recognized and felt by both poets and sculptors of that time. Attention was focused on the plastic and spiritual expressiveness of faces. Humanity and gentleness appeared in the characteristics of the saints. Their images became diverse, sharply individual, concrete, the sublime was combined in them with everyday everyday life. The human face was enlivened by an expressive look, thought or experience. Addressed to those around them and to each other, the saints, full of spiritual intimacy, seemed to be talking heartily among themselves. The Gothic artist conveyed subtle spiritual movements, joy and anxiety, compassion, anger, passionate excitement, languid meditation.

Sculptural groups appear, united by plot and dramatic action, diverse in composition. The holy women weep over the tomb of the Savior, the angels rejoice, the apostles in the Last Supper are worried, sinners are tormented in hell. Reviving the plastic conquests of the Greeks (the profile image of the face and the three-quarter turn of the figure), the Gothic masters go their own way. Their attitude to the world around them is more personal, emotional. The desire to enhance the sensual authenticity of the image revealed itself in keen observation and an avid interest in the single, private, individual, portrait and even unusual, random. The human face, both beautiful and ugly, for a medieval master was a reflection of the eternal beauty and wisdom of the universe. Hence the interest in the characteristic life details with which they enriched the plastic. The heyday of sculpture began at the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries in France, when the process of national awakening was on the rise. The simplicity and elegance of clear forms, the smoothness and purity of contours, the clarity of proportions, restrained gestures served in French sculpture as an expression of moral strength and spiritual perfection.

The highest achievements of Gothic sculpture are associated with the construction of Chartres, Reims and Amiens Cathedrals, numbering up to two thousand sculptural works, which are distinguished by high aesthetic pathos. Here, classical techniques of sculptural decoration were developed and a synthesis of all the arts was developed under the auspices of architecture. The Chartres masters created a number of images that are excellent in terms of their bright individuality and spirituality, for example, the wise Old Testament “kings” of the western portal - with a seal of arrogance and isolation in the face or in a state of internal tension. The statue of St. Theodore from the southern portal is distinguished by mature craftsmanship - it embodies the ideal pure image of a Christian knight with a trusting open face of a young man, concentrated, a little sad, and at the same time unshakably courageous. By changing the point of view, the viewer discovers different aspects of the warrior's character. Exceptional in complexity and versatility of the inner world is the portrait head of Rainier de Mouson (tombstone of the abbey of Josophat near Chartres), the Bishop of Chartres, with a face marked by intellectuality, power of thought, and nervous tension.

Hans Mulcher
Holy Trinity, 1430,
Cathedral in Ulm, Germany

Michel Colomb
Tombstone of Margrita de Foy,
1502, cathedral, Nantes, France

Michel Colomb, Saint
George slaying the dragon
Gaillon castle, France

In the statues of saints - Martin, Gregory and Jerome on the southern portal of Chartres Cathedral, a decisive step was taken in improving the construction of the human figure. While maintaining the frontal position necessary for architecture, the master revived the figures of the saints with a barely noticeable movement - a slight turn of the heads, a restrained gesture. Each image is a certain character with a corresponding state: Martin is angry and domineering, George is warm-hearted, quiet Jerome is thoughtful. At the same time, all three figures are united by a single sense of moral strength, spiritual nobility - the people of this era were consistent in their thoughts and actions with a high, but abstract concept of honor, loyalty, generosity. In the future, French sculpture followed the path of greater freedom in the staging of figures, turns, gestures, movements became distinct and varied. Among the Reims statues, the powerful figures of two women, Mary and Elizabeth, are marked by a special force of plastic expression. Each of them has an independent plastic value. At the same time, they are internally united by a silent dialogue, experiences. The young Mary, awaiting the birth of Christ, seems to be listening to the awakening of new life. Her head is the most plastically complex. The veil falling from curly hair either obscures or reveals the face and allows you to catch the subtle shades of moods slipping through the features from different points of view: either calmness, or sadness, or enlightenment, which dominates the profile. Spiritual excitement is expressed not only in classically beautiful features, but in the movement of the body, in the quivering vibration of the draperies of clothes, in the flexible sinuous lines of the contours. Mary, with her spiritual uplift, with her majestic grace, is contrasted with the image of an elderly, stern, wise, dignified and tragic foreboding Elizabeth. The images created by the Reims masters attract with their moral strength, the height of spiritual impulses and, at the same time, bodily vitality, simplicity and character, the charm of female beauty, close to the ancient ideal. Thoughtful Anna with delicate French features, temperamental St. Joseph (the group "The Presentation", 1240s) is an elegant secular person with a sparkling Gallic mind. The details are expressive: a sharp, perky look, a smartly twisted mustache, wildly curly hair, a curly beard, a rapid turn of the head towards the interlocutor. Energetic light and shadow modeling enhances the liveliness of expression.

The interpretation of traditional images is changing. Depicting scenes from the life of Christ, the Gothic master reveals his closeness to suffering humanity. Such is the image of Christ the Wanderer (Reims Cathedral), self-absorbed, mournful, reconciled with fate. In Christ Blessing (Amiens Cathedral), harmonious features are marked with the seal of wise moral beauty and courageous strength. The imperious gesture of the hand exactly calls the viewer to a worthy clean life. Among the people, the image of the Madonna with a baby in her arms was loved, embodying girlish purity and maternal tenderness. Since the 13th century, portals have often been dedicated to her. She is depicted with a flexible figure, with her head gently bowed to the baby, smiling, with half-closed eyes. Feminine charm and softness mark the "Gilded Madonna" of the south facade of Amiens Cathedral (late 13th century). The wide waves of lines running from the thigh to the foot, already visible in the Reims statues, acquire here the character of a movement full of noble rhythm. The flowing line brings out the graceful curve of the torso, hips and knees. In the statues of the Amiens Cathedral, the proportions are correct, the draperies naturally fit the figure. They are not characterized by the expression of the works of the Chartres masters. They are full-blooded and simple, plastically more perfect. Reims masters sometimes approach the ancient classics. Two female statues of the Strasbourg Cathedral (1230s) attract with their spiritual purity, elegance of slender proportions. One of them symbolizes the triumphant Christian Church, the other - the defeated Synagogue. The image of the Church, with an imperious gaze, with a proud posture, set off by the smooth rhythm of the folds of clothes, is given as positive. Dropping the torn tablets of the Covenant, the blindfolded Synagogue is tragic. She embodies the false Jewish religion condemned by Catholicism. The drooping head, the complex spiral movement of the flexible body, the unexpectedly sharp break of the spear express mental confusion and instability. The apt observations of the artist, the desire to reproduce specific details are noteworthy. Through the bandage on the face of the Synagogue, the outlines of the eyes are visible, through the thin fabric covering the arm of the Church, its graceful forms appear.

The sculpture of the Strasbourg Cathedral combined the features characteristic of French and German Gothic: the high ethical structure of French plastic and the expressiveness of German. The world of sublime images of Gothic sculpture often included everyday motifs, in which the folk stream of art made itself felt: grotesque figures of monks, genre figures of butchers, pharmacists, mowers, grape pickers, merchants. Subtle humor reigns in the scenes of the Last Judgment, which have lost their harsh character. Among the ugly sinners, there are often kings, monks and rich people. The “Stone calendars” (Amiens Cathedral) are depicted, which tell about the work and occupations of the peasants characteristic of each month. In 1385 Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy founded the Carthusian monastery of Champmol near Dijon in France. From the 1390s, commissioned by the duke, the best craftsmen erected monastic buildings and created custom sculptures. One of them was the Dutch sculptor Klaus Sluter, who made six human-sized stone statues of the prophets for the monastery.

In Germany, sculpture was less developed. More ponderous in its forms than the French, it captures the power of dramatic images. The tendency towards individualization of character and feelings gives rise to an almost portrait of Elizabeth of the Bamberg Cathedral (1230-1240), with severe features of a strong-willed face, with a gloomy agitated gaze. Sharp angular forms, restless broken folds of clothes enhance the drama of the image. Equestrian images appear early in Germany. The Bamberg Horseman is the embodiment of courage and chivalrous energy.

German Gothic played an important role in the development of portrait sculpture. In the statue of Margrave Eckehard of Naumburg Cathedral (mid-13th century), a typical image of an imperious, rude knight with a sensual haughty face is given. Fragility and lyricism distinguish his wife Uta - melancholic, concentrated, with a uniquely individual expressiveness, as if suddenly captured movements. From the 60s of the 13th century, spirituality was supplanted by the mannerism of pretty images, which was especially evident in small plastic. In the 14th century, cold elegance, naturalistic earthiness dominated. Sincere inspiration was often replaced by conditional schematization.